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Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e Outline Chapter 13 Page 1 of 11 CHAPTER 13 Cognitive Development Throughout the Lifespan CHAPTER INTRODUCTION Study the cognitive processes of infants and children in order to: understand the origin of cognitive skills prepare for careers requiring background knowledge about infancy and childhood Lifespan approach to development Study older adults in order to: discover which cognitive skills decline during the aging process and which remain stable prepare for careers requiring background knowledge about older adults understand older adults you already know and prepare for your own aging Research challenges THE LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT OF MEMORY Memory in Infants Early research underestimated infants' memory abilities. Six-month-old infants can create an association between two objects, even if they have never previously seen the objects together at the same time and even if they were never reinforced for creating these associations. One way to assess infants' memory is to see whether they look longer at one stimulus than another. ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e Outline Chapter 13 Page 2 of 11 Memory in Infants (continued) Recognizing Mother visual recognition—can distinguish mother from stranger Kisilevsky and coauthors (2003)—recognizing mother's voice mothers and infants in China tested infants 1-2 weeks before they were born mother's voice reading poem or female stranger's voice reading the same poem Heart rate changed more when listening to mother's voice than stranger's voice. Conjugate Reinforcement Carolyn Rovee-Collier and colleagues nonverbal measures of memory conjugate reinforcement technique—mobile, ribbon, kicking baseline, spontaneous kicking acquisition phase; 2 spaced training sessions immediate retention (number of kicks) long-term memory (number of kicks produced, following a delay) older infants—press lever to run train steady linear improvement during first 18 months of life factors influencing infant memory context effects spacing effect levels of processing Memory in Children Children can respond verbally, but may not understand the task instructions, or recognize letters and words Children's Working Memory Memory spans improve dramatically during childhood. Children have the same three working-memory components that adults have. Working memory is related to school performance. ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e Outline Chapter 13 Page 3 of 11 Memory in Children (continued) Children's Long-Term Memory excellent recognition but poor recall—Myers and Perlmutter (1978) 1. Autobiographical memory and early childhood "life narrative" Language skills help children remember personal experiences. scripts—When mothers encourage their children to provide detailed descriptions of events, these children are more likely to develop a narrative style that is detailed and coherent. People seldom recall events that happened when they were younger than 3. lack of well-organized sense of who they are difficulty encoding and retrieving 2. Children's source monitoring source monitoring—distinguishing between reality and fantasy Foley and colleagues performing vs. imagining how it would feel vs. visualizing performing vs. watching another person perform a task working together Preschool children have significant problems with source monitoring across a range of conditions. Children's Memory Strategies memory strategies utilization deficiency 1. Rehearsal not very effective, but can keep information in working memory 4- and 5-year-olds do not spontaneously use rehearsal can benefit from rehearsal if prompted 2. Organizational strategies categorizing and grouping Moely and colleagues children study pictures from four categories Younger children rarely rearrange pictures into categories without prompting. 3. Imagery Even 6-year-olds can be trained to use visual imagery effectively. Spontaneous use of imagery does not develop until adolescence. ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e Outline Chapter 13 Page 4 of 11 Memory in Children (continued) Children's Eyewitness Testimony Older children typically provide much more accurate eyewitness testimony than younger children. Leichtman and Ceci—"Sam Stone" study control, stereotype, suggestion, and stereotype-plus-suggestion conditions children interviewed about Sam Stone 10 weeks after visit control group highly accurate Children can provide valid eyewitness testimony if they do not receive misleading information, either before or after the target event. Misleading information can lead to invalid/false memories. Age, stereotyping, and misleading suggestions all influence children's eyewitness testimony. social factors reluctance to say "I don't know" change statements under cross-examination Individual Differences: Children’s Intellectual Abilities and Eyewitness Testimony Henry and Gudjonsson (2007) gas station video children with intellectual disabilities vs. typically developing children older and younger children recall & misleading questions recall test—Older children recalled more items than the younger children; the age difference was especially strong for the typically developing children. misleading-question situation—Older children made the same number of errors as the younger children; within each age group, the typically developing children provided a greater number of correct answers and a smaller number of errors. ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e Outline Chapter 13 Page 5 of 11 In Depth: Memory in Elderly People stereotypes large individual differences complex developmental trends Working Memory in Elderly People nature of the task age similarities in working memory when the task is relatively straightforward and requires simple storage (e.g., digit-span test) age differences when the task is complicated and requires manipulation of information (e.g., lists of unrelated words, recall in alphabetical order) Long-Term Memory in Elderly People Elderly people perform well on semantic memory tasks (e.g., crossword puzzles) and easy, automatic tasks. Age differences are found on more complex tasks (e.g., source monitoring). 1. Prospective memory simulated shopping task Older adults perform more accurately when they have an environmental cue. can even perform better than younger adults 2. Implicit memory Light and colleagues (1995) reading familiar or unfamiliar letter sequences older and younger adults performed similarly Age differences are minimal when memory task does not require effortful remembering 3. Recognition memory Long-term recognition memory declines slowly or not at all. 4. Explicit recall memory age differences are more substantial Aizpurua and colleagues (2009)—robbery video Older adults recalled less information than younger adults. similar in errors large individual differences—verbal ability, education Hasher and colleagues—time of day Zacks and Hasher (2006): ‘‘Taken together, these recent findings suggest that we may have seriously underestimated the memory abilities of older adults.’’ ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e Outline Chapter 13 Page 6 of 11 In Depth: Memory in Elderly People (continued) Explanations for Age Differences in Memory The complex pattern of effects requires a complex explanation. 1. Neurocognitive changes Some changes in brain structures occur during normal aging. Explicit recall memory can be disrupted if one component of the network is not functioning appropriately. increased activation in the frontal lobe, even though its actual size may decrease 2. Difficulty paying attention Elderly adults are more likely than younger adults to have difficulty paying attention. 3. Less effective use of memory strategies fewer chunks in working memory similar memory strategies in long-term memory 4. The contextual-cues hypothesis recognition tasks—contextual cues may encourage recognition for elderly individuals explicit recall tasks—elderly adults recall fewer contextual cues; must rely on effortful, deliberate processing, task more challenging 5. Cognitive slowing Elderly people often experience a slower rate of responding on cognitive tasks. Need several hypotheses to explain memory differences between older and younger adults. Currently no comprehensive explanation for results. ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e Outline Chapter 13 Page 7 of 11 THE LIFESPAN DEVELOPMENT OF METAMEMORY metacognition metamemory theory of mind metacomprehension Metamemory in Children Children's Understanding of How Memory Works Demonstration 13.3 related vs. random words effectiveness of memory and study strategies Children's Awareness That Effort Is Necessary Memory is not an automatic process. Young children do not appreciate the need for effort. Children are not accurate in judging whether they have successfully committed some information to memory. Children don't realize that they need to make an effort to use a memory strategy. Even older children have naive ideas about the effort required for memorization. Children's Judgments About Their Memory Performance Younger children are overconfident about memory performance. Older children are somewhat more accurate. Roebers and colleagues memory for magic show; confidence ratings overconfident that incorrect answers had been correct ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e Outline Chapter 13 Page 8 of 11 Metamemory in Children (continued) Children's Metamemory: The Relationship Between Metamemory and Memory Performance Summary 1. Their metamemory is faulty; they do not realize that they need to make an effort to memorize, and they also do not realize how little they can remember. 2. They do not spontaneously use helpful memory strategies. 3. Relative to older children, their memory performance is poor. Metamemory Strategy use Memory performance some evidence that metamemory is related to strategy use extensive evidence that strategy use is related to memory performance moderate correlation between metamemory and memory performance Metamemory in Elderly People Beliefs about memory Younger and older adults share similar beliefs about the properties of memory tasks. Memory monitoring Older and younger adults are equally skilled on some tasks: monitoring memory performance (e.g., predicting items they will recall) selecting most difficult items for further study judging accuracy on general-knowledge questions deciding whether an item is old or new Older adults are overconfident on some tasks: overall performance on a test of memory for specific details about a recent event performance on a task where working memory is "overworked" Older adults skilled in monitoring their memory, but may not use this information to decide how to remember information dementia Awareness of memory problems problems with everyday memory Some elderly people don't try to develop helpful memory strategies because they think that memory decline is inevitable. memory self-efficacy—the belief in one's own potential to perform well on memory tasks ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e Outline Chapter 13 Page 9 of 11 THE DEVELOPMENT OF LANGUAGE a spectacular human accomplishment vocabulary word combinations Language in Infants Speech Perception During Infancy phonemes speech-sound categories across speakers Infants can perceive almost all the speech-sound contrasts used in language, either at birth or within the first few weeks of life. recognizing similarities Werker and Tees (1984) phonemic distinctions made by children but not adults Hindi t sounds changes across first year Young infants perceive numerous phonetic distinctions in every language; later they reorganize perceptual categories to focus on important distinctions in their own language environment. language rhythms In bilingual homes infants can discriminate between different languages. Language Comprehension in Infancy 1. Recognizing important words name, mommy, daddy 2. Understanding the correspondence between sound and sight emotional tone of spoken language Walker-Andrews (1986) recordings of either a happy voice or an angry voice side-by-side films of happy speaker and angry speaker Infants watched the face that matched the emotion of the voice. 3. Appreciating semantic concepts Mandler and colleagues—concepts about objects animate/inanimate objects "animal" vs. "vehicle" categories Concepts become more refined with age. ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e Outline Chapter 13 Page 10 of 11 Language in Infants (continued) Language Production in Infancy cooing babbling intentional communication Adults' Language to Infants child-directed speech (formerly known as "motherese") Adults typically use a different language style when speaking to infants and young children than when speaking to older people. Features of child-directed language help young language learners understand the meaning and structure of language. pitch, variation in pitch, vocabulary, sentence length, repetition, intonation Can Infants Learn Language from a DVD? DeLoache and colleagues (2010) 1. The parent-teaching condition did not use any DVD; instead the parents were given a list of the 25 words from the DVD, and they were instructed to try to teach their infant as many words as possible for a 4-week period. 2. In the DVD-with-interaction condition, the child and the parent watched the DVD together at least five times each week for a 4-week period. 3. In the DVD-with-no-interaction condition, the children watched the DVD by themselves, at least five times each week for a 4-week period. 4. In the control condition, there was no DVD and the parents did not try to teach specific words to their children. object identification tested after 4 weeks parent-teaching condition significantly better than the other three groups Language in Children Words early words and concepts word production vocabulary growth and caregiver talk; storytelling comprehension of words; understand more than they can produce interrelationship of memory and language fast mapping—using context to make a reasonable guess about a word's meaning overextension ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc. Margaret W. Matlin, Cognition, 8e Outline Chapter 13 Page 11 of 11 Language in Children (continued) Morphology morphemes morphology pay greater attention to phrases with appropriate morphology create their own regular forms overregularization—the tendency to add the most customary morphemes to create new forms of irregular words rule-and-memory theory (Marcus) Children learn a general rule for past-tense verbs and also store in memory the past tenses for many irregular verbs. gradually replace the overregularized words with appropriate past-tense verbs Syntax combining words into sentences two-word utterances working memory different relationships gradual improvement in morphology and syntax active process using syntax cues to understand relationships in sentences Pragmatics learning the social rules of language; successful communication what to say (and not to say), to whom, in what circumstances language styles, coordinating conversations adapting language to the listener Shatz and Gelman (1973) 4-year-olds speaking to 2-year-olds, 4-year-olds and adults 2-year olds speaking to infants taking turns in conversation gestures of interest; listener responses ©2013 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.