Download unit 5—reason and the french revolution

UNIT 6:
NATIONALISM
AND
INDUSTRIALIZATION
Metternich
Bismarck
Key Concept 3.6
European ideas and culture expressed a tension between objectivity and scientific realism on one hand, and
subjectivity and individual expression on the other.
I. Romanticism broke with neoclassical forms of artistic
representation and with rationalism, placing more emphasis on
intuition and emotion.
A. Romantic artists and
artists such as
composers broke from classical the following:
artistic forms to emphasize
• Francisco Goya
emotion, nature, individuality,
• Caspar David Friedrich
intuition, the supernatural, and • J. M. W. Turner
national histories in their
• John Constable
works.
• Eugène Delacroix
B. Romantic writers expressed
similar themes while
responding to the Industrial
Revolution and to various
political revolutions.
romantic composers such
as the following:
• Ludwig van Beethoven
• Frédéric Chopin
• Richard Wagner
• Pyotr Ilich Tchaikovsky
• Johann Wolfgang von Goethe
• William Wordsworth
• Lord Byron
• Percy Shelley
• John Keats
• Mary Shelley
• Victor Hugo
PP-14 Explain how industrialization elicited critiques from artists,
socialists, workers’ movements, and feminist organizations.
OS-10 Analyze the means by which individualism, subjectivity, and
emotion came to be considered a valid source of knowledge.
OS-12 Analyze how artists used strong emotions to express
individuality and political theorists encouraged emotional
identification with the nation.
OS-13 Explain how and why modern artists began to move away from
realism and toward abstraction and the non-rational, rejecting
traditional
aesthetics.
Chapter 19B—Triumph of Romanticism
Key Topics (Congress of Vienna and beyond)
The Congress of Vienna
In this settlement, the Bourbon monarchy was restored in France and a non-vindictive boundary settlement left
France satisfied. The settlement of eastern Europe divided the victors and enabled Talleyrand, representing France,
to join the deliberations. France, Britain, and Austria were able to prevent Russia and Prussia from gaining all of
Poland and Saxony respectively. The victors agreed that no single state should dominate Europe; the concept of
“balance of power” was formally put into practice and proved to be successful for the next hundred years.
Age of Romanticism
Romanticism was an intellectual movement that permeated philosophy, art, literature, music, and architecture
in the first half of the 19th century. It involved nationalism, strong emotions (melancholy, joy, pain, etc.),
imagination, and religion, as the Romantics analyzed their world, both natural and social. This period was a direct
reaction to the Enlightenment and its stress on the importance of reason as the philosophes analyzed their world.
The immediate intellectual foundations of the movement were provided by Rousseau and Kant. In England
and Germany, the term “romantic” came to be applied to all literature that failed to observe classical forms and gave
free play to the imagination. English romantics included Blake, Coleridge, Shelley, Wordsworth, and Byron.
Perhaps the most important person to write about history at this time was Hegel, who fostered the theory that ideas
developed in evolutionary fashion. A predominant set of ideas (the thesis) is challenged by a conflicting set (the
antithesis), and out of the conflict emerges a synthesis, which then becomes the new thesis.
Islam and Romanticism
Under the influence of nationalistic aspirations and romantic sensibilities, Europeans viewed Islam with
ambivalence. On the one hand, the Ottoman Empire was reviled as the repressor of independence movements such
as the Greek Revolution of 1821; on the other, Europeans viewed the Crusades of the twelfth century through a
romantic prism and stories from The Thousand and One Nights were accorded prominence as mysterious and
exotic. Napoleon was perhaps the most important individual to reshape Islam and the Middle East in the European
imagination. His Egyptian campaign in 1798 opened new opportunities for Europeans to learn about Arabic history
and Islamic culture. Two cultural effects on the West of Napoleon’s invasion were an increase in the number of
European visitors to the Middle East and a demand for architecture based on ancient models. In the Middle East
itself, Napoleon’s invasion demonstrated western military and technological superiority, eventually resulting in
Ottoman reforms intended to help the empire compete with European states.
CHAPTER SUMMARY (Congress of Vienna and beyond)
The Congress of Vienna met from September 1814 to November 1815. The arrangements were essentially made
by four great powers: Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia; the key person in achieving agreement was British foreign
secretary Castlereagh. The victors agreed that no single state should dominate Europe. Proceedings were interrupted by
Napoleon’s return in March, 1815. They soon defeated him at Waterloo. The episode hardened the peace settlement for
France, but the Congress settled difficult problems in a reasonable way. No general war occurred for a century.
A new intellectual movement known as Romanticism emerged as a reaction against the Enlightenment. The Age
of Romanticism was roughly 1780–1830. Romantic religious thinkers appealed to the inner emotions of humankind for
the foundation of religion. Methodist teachings, for example, emphasized inward, heartfelt religion and the possibility of
Christian perfection in this life. Romanticism glorified both the individual person and individual cultures. German
writers such as Herder and the Grimm brothers went in search of their own past and revived German folk culture.
Romantic ideas, then, made a major contribution to the emergence of nationalism by emphasizing the worth of each
separate people. Romantic thought also modified European understanding of Islam and the Arab world, helping
Europeans to see the Muslim world in a more positive light.
ID’s
People
Byron, Lord (George Gordon)
Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von
Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich
Wesley, Charles
Countries/ Land
Time Periods/Events
Age of Romanticism
Terms
Conservative Order/Wars of Independence--Ch 20
Key Concept 2.1
Different models of political sovereignty affected the relationship among states and between states and individuals.
IV. The French Revolution posed a fundamental challenge to
Europe’s existing political and social order
* Revolutionary ideals inspired a slave revolt
led by Toussaint L’Ouverture in the French
colony of Saint Domingue, which became the
independent nation of Haiti in 1804
Evaluate how identities such as ethnicity, race, and class have defined the
individual in relationship to society.
Assess the role of colonization, the Industrial Revolution, total warfare,
and economic depressions in altering the government’s relationship to the
economy, both in overseeing economic activity and in addressing its social
impact.
Analyze how various movements for political and social equality — such
as feminism, anticolonialism, and campaigns for immigrants’ rights —
pressured governments and redefined citizenship.
Analyze how contact with non-European peoples increased European
social and cultural diversity, and affected attitudes toward race.
Explain the extent of and causes for non-Europeans’ adoption of or
resistance to European cultural, political, or economic values and
institutions, and explain the causes of their reactions.
Explain how European expansion and colonization brought non-European
societies into global economic, diplomatic, military, and cultural networks.
Analyze how and why Europeans have marginalized certain populations
(defined as “other”) over the course of their history.
Key Concept 3.3
The problems of industrialization provoked a range of ideological, governmental, and collective responses.
I. Ideologies developed and took root throughout society as a response to
industrial and political revolutions.
A. Liberals emphasized popular
• Jeremy Bentham
sovereignty, individual rights, and
• Anti-Corn Law League
enlightened self-interest but debated
• John Stuart Mill
the extent to which all groups in society
should actively participate in its
governance.
B. Radicals in Britain and republicans
• Chartists
on the continent demanded universal
• Flora Tristan
male suffrage and full citizenship
without regard to wealth and property
ownership; some argued that such
rights should be extended to women.
C. Conservatives developed a new
• Edmund Burke
ideology in support of traditional
• Joseph de Maistre
political and religious authorities, which • Klemens von Metternich
was based on the idea that human
nature was not perfectible.
F. Nationalists encouraged loyalty to the nationalists such as the
nation in a variety of ways, including
following:
romantic idealism, liberal reform,
• J. G. Fichte
political unification, racialism with a
• Grimm Brothers
concomitant anti-Semitism, and
• Giuseppe Mazzini
chauvinism justifying national
• Pan-Slavists
aggrandizement.
anti-Semitism such as the
following:
• Dreyfus Affair
• Christian Social Party in Germany
• Karl Lueger, mayor of Vienna
PP-8 Analyze socialist, communist, and fascist efforts
to develop responses to capitalism and why these
efforts gained support during times of economic crisis.
PP-10 Explain the role of social inequality in
contributing to and affecting the nature of the French
Revolution and subsequent revolutions throughout the
19th and 20th centuries.
PP-14 Explain how industrialization elicited critiques
from artists, socialists, workers’ movements, and
feminist organizations.
OS-4 Explain how a worldview based on science and
reason challenged and preserved social order and
roles, especially the roles of women.
OS-8 Explain the emergence, spread, and questioning
of scientific, technological, and positivist approaches to
addressing social problems.
OS-9 Explain how new theories of government and
political ideologies attempted to provide a coherent
explanation for human behavior and the extent to
which they adhered to or diverged from traditional
explanations based on religious beliefs.
OS-10 Analyze the means by which individualism,
subjectivity, and emotion came to be considered a
valid source of knowledge.
OS-12 Analyze how artists used strong emotions to
express individuality and political theorists
encouraged emotional identification with the nation.
SP-1 Explain the emergence of civic humanism and
new conceptions of political authority during the
Renaissance, as well as subsequent theories and
practices that stressed the political importance and
rights of the individual.
SP-3 Trace the changing relationship between states
and ecclesiastical authority and the emergence of the
principle of religious toleration.
SP-4 Analyze how new political and economic theories
from the 17th century and the Enlightenment
challenged absolutism and shaped the development of
constitutional states, parliamentary governments, and
the concept of individual rights.
SP-7 Explain the emergence of representative
government as an alternative to absolutism.
SP-9 Analyze how various movements for political and
social equality — such as feminism, anti-colonialism,
and campaigns for immigrants’ rights — pressured
governments and redefined citizenship.
SP-11 Analyze how religious and secular institutions
and groups attempted to limit monarchical power by
articulating theories of resistance to absolutism, and
by taking political action.
SP-17 Explain the role of nationalism in altering the
European balance of power, and explain attempts
made to limit nationalism as a means to ensure
continental stability.
IS-5 Explain why and how class emerged as a basis for
identity and led to conflict in the 19th and 20th
centuries.
IS-6 Evaluate the causes and consequences of
persistent tensions between women’s role and status
in the private versus the public sphere.
IS-7 Evaluate how identities such as ethnicity, race,
and class have defined the individual in relationship to
society.
IS-9 Assess the extent to which women participated in
and benefited from the shifting values of European
society from the 15th century onwards.
IS-10 Analyze how and why Europeans have
marginalized certain populations (defined as “other”)
over the course of their history.
Key Concept 3.4
European states struggled to maintain international stability in an age of nationalism and revolutions.
I. The Concert of Europe (or Congress System) sought to
maintain the status quo through collective action and adherence
to conservatism.
A. Metternich, architect of the
Concert of Europe, used it to
suppress nationalist and liberal
revolutions.
B. Conservatives re-established
control in many European
states and attempted to
suppress movements for
change and, in some areas, to
strengthen adherence to
religious authorities.
C. In the first half of the 19th
• Greek War of Independence
century, revolutionaries
• Decembrist Revolt in Russia
attempted to destroy the status • Polish Rebellion
quo.
• July Revolution in France
PP-10 Explain the role of social inequality in contributing to and
affecting the nature of the French Revolution and subsequent
revolutions throughout the 19th and 20th centuries.
OS-3 Explain how political revolution and war from the 17th century
on altered the role of the church in political and intellectual life and
the response of religious authorities and intellectuals to such
challenges.
OS-9 Explain how new theories of government and political ideologies
attempted to provide a coherent explanation for human behavior and
the extent to which they adhered to or diverged from traditional
explanations based on religious beliefs.
SP-3 Trace the changing relationship between states and ecclesiastical
authority and the emergence of the principle of religious toleration.
SP-4 Analyze how new political and economic theories from the 17th
century and the Enlightenment challenged absolutism and shaped the
development of constitutional states, parliamentary governments,
and the concept of individual rights.
SP-7 Explain the emergence of representative government as an
alternative to absolutism.
SP-11 Analyze how religious and secular institutions and groups
attempted to limit monarchical power by articulating theories of
resistance to absolutism, and by taking political action.
SP-14 Analyze the role of warfare in remaking the political map of
Europe and in shifting the global balance of power in the 19th and
20th centuries.
SP-16 Explain how the French Revolution and the revolutionary and
Napoleonic wars shifted the European balance of power and
encouraged the creation of a new diplomatic framework.
SP-17 Explain the role of nationalism in altering the European balance
of power, and explain attempts made to limit nationalism as a means
to ensure continental stability.
IS-5 Explain why and how class emerged as a basis for identity and
led to conflict in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Chapter 20—The Conservative Order
and the Challenges of Reform (1815-1832)
Key Topics
Liberalism/Nationalism vs. Conservatism
Metternich’s role at the Congress of Vienna and beyond set the stage for a two-faceted response. As
conservatism attempted to hold on to the old world, a new world was being constructed from the ideas of
liberalism and nationalism. Indeed, the more the old order tried to hold on, the more revolutions would erupt
under it. Whether moves for enfranchisement, constitutionalism, independence, or religious freedom, Europe
from Great Britain to Russia was irrevocably changed in the early 19th century.
Liberals tended to be those who were excluded from the existing political processes; they were not
democrats. Hostile to privileged aristocrats, they were contemptuous of the unpropertied class. They sought
the removal of economic restraints and believed that labor was simply one more commodity to be bought and
sold freely. Liberalism was often complementary to nationalism. The specific problems of the liberals
differed according to circumstances; in Germany, for instance, liberals hoped that a unified Germany would be
created through the Prussian monarchy, which could later yield to a freer social and political order.
Revolutions of the early 1800’s
Although not all liberal or nationalistic moves culminated in violence, many did. And, even though
they were fought for a variety of reasons, revolts in Spain, Greece, Haiti, Brazil, most of Spanish America,
France, and Belgium were successful. Others were important because they set the stage for future change.
The Great Reform Bill (1832)
This bill called for A) abolishing “rotten” boroughs and replacing them with representatives for the
previously unrepresented manufacturing districts and cities and B) doubling the number of voters through a
series of new franchises. The Great Reform Bill, however, was not a democratic measure (the basis of voting
remained a property qualification), nor did it contribute to the triumph of the middle class (for every new
urban district, a new rural district was also drawn, and it was expected that the aristocracy would dominate the
rural elections), but it did make revolution unnecessary by admitting the people who sought change to political
forum.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
The defeat of Napoleon and the diplomatic settlement of the Congress of Vienna restored the conservative
political and social order in Europe. This chapter deals with the confrontation of this conservative order with potential
sources of unrest found in the forces of liberalism, nationalism, and popular sovereignty. The text offers a fairly
extensive treatment of nationalism and liberalism. Despite the challenges of liberalism and nationalism, the domestic
political order that the restored conservative institutions of Europe established showed remarkable staying power.
The
Austrian government could make no serious compromises with the programs of liberalism and nationalism, which would
have meant the probable dissolution of the empire. The Austrian statesman Metternich epitomized conserva tism. In the
immediate post-war years, he was primarily concerned with preventing movements toward constitutionalism in the
German states.
In Great Britain, unemployment led to demands for the reform of Parliament. For a time, repression brought
calm, but in 1817 the Coercion Acts were passed, and in 1819 the Six Acts followed. These attempted to remove the
instruments of agitation from the hands of radical leaders and to provide the authorities with new powers.
The Bourbon monarchy was restored to France. Supported by the restoration constitution called the Charter,
Louis XVIII attempted to pursue a policy of mild accommodation with the liberals. In 1829, the assassination of his
nephew persuaded Louis to take a harder line, which was evident by the early 1820s.
Foreign policy issues were worked out through congresses or, later, through more informal consultations in a
system known as the Concert of Europe. At Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, Tsar Alexander I suggested that the Quadruple
Alliance (Russia, Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain) agree to uphold the borders and existing governments of all
European countries. Britain contended that the Quadruple Alliance was intended only to prevent future French
aggression and flatly rejected the proposal. The text then details the revolutions that commenced in Spain and Italy in
1820. The final result was that Britain withdrew from continental affairs, but the others agreed to support Austrian
intervention in Italy and French intervention in Spain. The revolution that took place in Greece in 1821 was part of a
larger problem: the weakness of the Ottoman Empire. The conflicting interests of the major powers prevented any direct
intervention in Greece for several years, but finally Britain, France, and Russia supported the Greeks. A Treaty of
London in 1830 declared Greece an independent kingdom. The wars of Napoleon also sparked independence movements
from European domination in Latin America. Haiti achieved independence from France following a slave revolt led by
Toussaint L’Ouverture. The efforts of José de San Martín (Peru and Chile), Simón Bolívar (Venezuela), and Bernardo
O’Higgins (Chile) are also discussed—as are events in Mexico and Brazil.
Nineteenth-century liberals wanted to limit the arbitrary power of the government against the persons and the
property of individual citizens. Liberalism was often complimentary to nationalism in Germany, Italy, and the Austrian
Empire. During the 1820s, Russia took the lead in suppressing liberal and nationalistic tendencies. Nicholas I ascended
the throne in 1825 and soon put down the Decembrist Revolt. Nicholas I was the most extreme of the nineteenth century
autocrats. He embraced a program called Official Nationalism that had the slogan “Orthodoxy, Autocracy and
Nationalism.” The program alienated serious Russian intellectual life from the tsarist government. In response to an
uprising in Poland in 1830, Nicholas sent in troops and declared Poland to be an integral part of the Russian Empire.
Charles X, an ultra-royalist, succeeded to the French throne in 1824 and tried to roll back as much of the
revolution as possible. When elections in 1830 resulted in a stunning victory for the liberals, Charles issued the Four
Ordinances (July 1830), which amounted to a royal coup d’etat. Rioting broke out in Paris and Charles abdicated. Louis
Philippe was proclaimed the new monarch and politically his rule was more liberal than the restoration government. But
socially, the revolution of 1830 proved quite conservative and little sympathy was displayed for the lower classes; violent
uprisings continued to occur.
The July Days in Paris started an independence movement in Belgium. The former Austrian Netherlands had
been merged with Holland in 1815, but the upper classes in Belgium had never reconciled themselves to rule by a country
with a different language, religion, and economic life. After defeating Dutch troops, Belgian revolutionaries wrote a
constitution that was promulgated in 1831. Thanks to the efforts of Britain’s Lord Palmerston, the other European
powers recognized Belgium as an independent and neutral state.
In Britain, the forces of conservatism and reform made accommodations with each other. Several factors made
this possible: a large commercial and industrial class, a tradition of liberal Whig aristocrats, and a strong respect for civil
liberties. The chapter also details reforms such as the Emancipation Act (1829) and the Great Reform Bill of 1832.
ID’s
People
Burschenschaften
Charles X
Concert of Europe
Louis Philippe
Louis XVIII
Nicholas I
L’Ouverture, Toussaint
Whigs
Countries/ Land
German Confederation of States
United Netherlands
Time Periods/Events
Decembrist Revolt
Greek Revolution
Haitian Revolution
July Revolution
Peterloo Massacre
Terms
Act of Union
Eastern Question
Great Reform Bill
Liberalism
Monroe Doctrine
Nationalism
Industrial Revolution/1848/Socialism--Ch 21
Key Concept 3.1
The Industrial Revolution spread from Great Britain to the continent, where the state played a greater role in
promoting industry.
I. Great Britain established its industrial dominance through the mechanization of
textile production, iron and steel production, and new transportation systems.
A. Britain’s ready supplies of coal, iron ore, and
other essential raw materials promoted
industrial growth.
B. Economic institutions and human capital
The Crystal Palace at the Great
such as engineers, inventors, and capitalists
Exhibition of 1851
helped Britain lead the process of
• Banks
industrialization, largely through private
• Government financial awards to
initiative.
inventors
C. Britain’s parliamentary government
romoted commercial and industrial interests,
because those interests were represented in
Parliament
II. Following the British example, industrialization took root in continental
Europe, sometimes with state sponsorship.
A. France moved toward industrialization at a
• Canals
more gradual pace than Great Britain, with
• Railroads
government support and with less dislocation • Trade agreements
of traditional methods of production.
B. Industrialization in Prussia allowed that
• Zollverein
state to become the leader of a unified
• Investment in transportation
Germany, which subsequently underwent
network
rapid industrialization under government
• Adoption of improved methods
sponsorship.
of manufacturing
• Friedrich List’s National System
C. A combination of factors, including
• Lack of resources
eography, lack of resources, the dominance of
• Lack of adequate transportation
traditional landed elites, the persistence of
serfdom in some areas, and inadequate
PP-1 Explain how and why wealth generated from
new trading, financial, and manufacturing practices
and institutions created a market and then a
consumer economy.
PP-3 Explain how geographic, economic, social, and
political factors affected the pace, nature, and timing
of industrialization in western and eastern Europe.
SP-5 Assess the role of colonization, the Industrial
Revolution, total warfare, and economic
depressions in altering the government’s
relationship to the economy, both in overseeing
economic activity and in addressing its social
impact.
PP-1 Explain how and why wealth generated from
new trading, financial, and manufacturing practices
and institutions created a market and then a
consumer economy.
PP-3 Explain how geographic, economic, social, and
political factors affected the pace, nature, and timing
of industrialization in western and eastern Europe.
SP-5 Assess the role of colonization, the Industrial
Revolution, total warfare, and economic
depressions in altering the government’s
relationship to the economy, both in overseeing
economic activity and in addressing its social
impact.
IS-3 Evaluate the role of technology, from the
printing press to modern transportation and
telecommunications, in forming and transforming
government sponsorship accounted for
eastern and southern Europe’s lag in industrial
development.
society.
Key Concept 3.2
The experiences of everyday life were shaped by industrialization, depending on the level of
industrial development in a particular location.
I. Industrialization promoted the development of new classes in the
industrial regions of Europe.
A. In industrialized areas of Europe (i.e., western
and northern Europe), socioeconomic changes
created divisions of labor that led to the
development of self-conscious classes, such as the
proletariat and the bourgeoisie.
B. In some of the less industrialized areas of
Europe, the dominance of agricultural elites
persisted into the 20th century.
C. Class identity developed and was reinforced
through participation in philanthropic, political,
and social associations among the middle classes,
and in mutual aid societies and trade unions
among the working classes.
II. Europe experienced rapid population growth and urbanization, leading
to social dislocations.
A. Along with better harvests caused in part by the
commercialization of agriculture, industrialization
promoted population growth, longer life
expectancy, and lowered infant mortality.
B. With migration from rural to urban areas in
industrialized regions, cities experienced
overcrowding, while affected rural areas suffered
declines in available labor as well as weakened
communities.
PP-6 Analyze how expanding commerce and
industrialization from the 16th through the 19th centuries
led to the growth of cities and changes in the social
structure, most notably a shift from a landed to a
commercial elite.
IS-2 Explain how the growth of commerce and changes in
manufacturing challenged the dominance of corporate
groups and traditional estates.
IS-5 Explain why and how class emerged as a basis for
identity and led to conflict in the 19th and 20th centuries.
IS-7 Evaluate how identities such as ethnicity, race, and class
have defined the individual in relationship to society.
PP-6 Analyze how expanding commerce and
industrialization from the 16th through the 19th centuries
led to the growth of cities and changes in the social
structure, most notably a shift from a landed to a
commercial elite.
PP-7 Explain how environmental conditions, the Agricultural
Revolution, and industrialization contributed to
demographic
changes, the organization of manufacturing, and alterations
in the family economy.
PP-13 Analyze how cities and states have attempted to
address the problems brought about by economic
modernization, such
as poverty and famine, through regulating morals, policing
marginal populations, and improving public health.
PP-7 Explain how environmental conditions, the Agricultural
Revolution, and industrialization contributed to
demographic
changes, the organization of manufacturing, and alterations
in the family economy.
PP-15 Analyze efforts of government and nongovernmental
reform movements to respond to poverty and other social
B. By the end of the century, wages and the quality • Factory Act of 1833 roblems in the 19th and 20th centuries.
OS-4 Explain how a worldview based on science and reason
of life for the working class improved because of
• Mines Act of 1842
challenged and preserved social order and roles, especially
laws restricting the labor of children and women,
• Ten Hours Act of
the roles of women.
social welfare programs, improved diet, and the
1847
OS-8 Explain the emergence, spread, and questioning of
use of birth control.
scientific, technological, and positivist approaches to
C. Economic motivations for marriage, while still
addressing social problems.
important for all classes, diminished as the
IS-4 Analyze how and why the nature and role of the family
middle-class notion of companionate marriage
has changed over time.
began to be adopted by the working classes.
IS-5 Explain why and how class emerged as a basis for
identity and led to conflict in the 19th and 20th centuries.
IS-6 Evaluate the causes and consequences of persistent
tensions between women’s role and status in the private
versus the public sphere
IS-7 Evaluate how identities such as ethnicity, race, and class
have defined the individual in relationship to society.
IS-9 Assess the extent to which women
participated in and benefited from the shifting values of
European society from the 15th century onwards.
V. Because of the persistence of primitive agricultural practices and land- PP-3 Explain how geographic, economic, social, and political
owning patterns, some areas of Europe lagged in industrialization, while
factors affected the pace, nature, and timing of
facing famine, debt, and land shortages.
industrialization in western and eastern Europe.
• The “Hungry ’40s”
IS-10 Analyze how and why Europeans have marginalized
• Irish Potato Famine
certain populations (defined as “other”) over the course of
• Russian serfdom
their history.
Key Concept 3.3
III. Over time, the Industrial Revolution altered the family structure and
relations for bourgeois and working-class families.
A. Bourgeois families became focused on the
nuclear family and the “cult of domesticity,” with
distinct gender roles for men and women.
The problems of industrialization provoked a range of ideological, governmental, and collective responses.
I. Ideologies developed and took root throughout society as a response to
industrial and political revolutions.
A. Liberals emphasized popular sovereignty,
• Jeremy Bentham
PP-8 Analyze socialist, communist, and fascist efforts to
develop responses to capitalism and why these efforts gained
individual rights, and enlightened self-interest
but debated the extent to which all groups in
society should actively participate in its
governance.
B. Radicals in Britain and republicans on the
continent demanded universal male suffrage
and full citizenship without regard to wealth
and property ownership; some argued that
such rights should be extended to women.
C. Conservatives developed a new ideology in
support of traditional political and religious
authorities, which was based on the idea that
human nature was not perfectible.
D. Socialists called for a fair distribution of
society’s resources and wealth, and evolved
from a utopian to a Marxist “scientific” critique
of capitalism.
E. Anarchists asserted that all forms of
governmental authority were unnecessary,
and should be overthrown and replaced with a
society based on voluntary cooperation.
F. Nationalists encouraged loyalty to the nation
in a variety of ways, including romantic
idealism, liberal reform, political unification,
racialism with a concomitant anti-Semitism,
and chauvinism justifying national
aggrandizement.
• Anti-Corn Law
League
• John Stuart Mill
• Chartists
• Flora Tristan
• Edmund Burke
• Joseph de Maistre
• Klemens von
Metternich
utopian socialists
such as the following:
• Henri de Saint-Simon
• Charles Fourier
• Robert Owen
Marxists such as the
following:
• Friedrich Engels
• August Bebel
• Clara Zetkin
• Rosa Luxemburg
• Mikhail Bakunin
• Georges Sorel
nationalists such as
the
following:
• J. G. Fichte
• Grimm Brothers
• Giuseppe Mazzini
• Pan-Slavists
support during times of economic crisis.
PP-10 Explain the role of social inequality in contributing to
and affecting the nature of the French Revolution and
subsequent revolutions throughout the 19th and 20th
centuries.
PP-14 Explain how industrialization elicited critiques from
artists, socialists, workers’ movements, and feminist
organizations.
OS-4 Explain how a worldview based on science and reason
challenged and preserved social order and roles, especially the
roles of women.
OS-8 Explain the emergence, spread, and questioning of
scientific, technological, and positivist approaches to
addressing social problems.
OS-9 Explain how new theories of government and political
ideologies attempted to provide a coherent explanation for
human behavior and the extent to which they adhered to or
diverged from traditional explanations based on religious
beliefs.
OS-10 Analyze the means by which individualism, subjectivity,
and emotion came to be considered a valid source of
knowledge.
OS-12 Analyze how artists used strong emotions to express
individuality and political theorists encouraged emotional
identification with the nation.
SP-1 Explain the emergence of civic humanism and new
conceptions of political authority during the Renaissance, as
well as subsequent theories and practices that stressed the
political importance and rights of the individual.
SP-3 Trace the changing relationship between states and
ecclesiastical authority and the emergence of the principle of
religious toleration.
SP-4 Analyze how new political and economic theories from
the 17th century and the Enlightenment challenged absolutism
and
shaped the development of constitutional states,
parliamentary governments, and the concept of individual
anti-Semitism such as
the following:
• Dreyfus Affair
• Christian Social Party
in Germany
• Karl Lueger, mayor of
Vienna
rights.
SP-7 Explain the emergence of representative government as
an alternative to absolutism.
SP-9 Analyze how various movements for political and social
equality — such as feminism, anticolonialism, and campaigns
for immigrants’ rights — pressured governments and
redefined citizenship.
SP-11 Analyze how religious and secular institutions and
groups attempted to limit monarchical power by articulating
theories of
resistance to absolutism, and by taking political action.
SP-17 Explain the role of nationalism in altering the European
balance of power, and explain attempts made to limit
nationalism as a means to ensure continental stability.
IS-5 Explain why and how class emerged as a basis for identity
and led to conflict in the 19th and 20th centuries.
IS-6 Evaluate the causes and consequences of persistent
tensions between women’s role and status in the private
versus the public sphere.
IS-7 Evaluate how identities such as ethnicity, race, and class
have defined the individual in relationship to society.
IS-9 Assess the extent to which women participated in and
benefited from the shifting values of European society from
the 15th century onwards.
IS-10 Analyze how and why Europeans have marginalized
certain populations (defined as “other”) over the course of
their history.
Key Concept 3.4
European states struggled to maintain international stability in an age of nationalism and revolutions.
I. The Concert of Europe (or Congress System) sought to maintain the
status quo through collective action and adherence to conservatism.
D. The revolutions of 1848 challenged the
conservative order and led to the
breakdown of the Concert of Europe.
PP-10 Explain the role of social inequality in contributing to
and affecting the nature of the French Revolution and
subsequent revolutions throughout the 19th and 20th
centuries.
OS-3 Explain how political revolution and war from the 17th
century on altered the role of the church in political and
intellectual life and the response of religious authorities and
intellectuals to such challenges.
SP-4 Analyze how new political and economic theories from
the 17th century and the Enlightenment challenged absolutism
and shaped the development of constitutional states,
parliamentary governments, and the concept of individual
rights.
SP-7 Explain the emergence of representative government as
an alternative to absolutism.
SP-11 Analyze how religious and secular institutions and
groups attempted to limit monarchical power by articulating
theories of resistance to absolutism, and by taking political
action.
SP-14 Analyze the role of warfare in remaking the political
map of Europe and in shifting the global balance of power in
the 19th and 20th centuries.
SP-17 Explain the role of nationalism in altering the European
balance of power, and explain attempts made to limit
ationalism as a means to ensure continental stability.
IS-5 Explain why and how class emerged as a basis for identity
and led to conflict in the 19th and 20th centuries.
Chapter 21— Economic Advance
and Social Unrest (1830-1850)
Key Topics
Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution
The growing population of Europe in the 19th century was focused in the cities and directly tied to the
Industrial Revolution. This growing work force included a variety of workers from the well-off to the poor.
The British working family foreshadowed what would happen eventually across the Continent. In the early
19th century the family tended to maintain strong ties, occasionally working at the same factory. As the
century progressed and Parliament passed legislation that mandated better hours and pay, the family became
less a unit of production and more one of consumption. As well, as the need for women and children to work
decreased, the mothers were able to focus more on their homes, which included the education of their children.
Industrialism and the Family
The industrial revolution did not destroy the working-class family, but it did make the European
family primarily a unit of consumption alone, rather than a unit of production and consumption. Families
came to depend on sharing wages from several sources rather than on sharing work in the home or factory.
The wage economy meant that families were less closely bound together than in the past.
Developing Economic Theories
Classical economists offered pessimistic theories on the direction of society and influenced the
response of many governments to the plight of the working class. Growing out of the misery of the working
class and the slow progress of positive change, socialists focused on the community as the core of a solution,
in direct opposition to the ideas of the classical economists with their focus on the autonomous individual.
The Socialist Movement
Among the first writers to define the social question were the utopian socialists, notably Saint-Simon,
Owen, and Fourier. Their ideas were often visionary and idealistic, but they expected some existing
government to carry them out. Saint-Simon believed that modern society required rational management and
hoped for a government consisting of a large board of expert directors organizing and coordinating individual
activity. Owen’s version of socialism was little more than old-fashioned paternalism transported to the
industrial setting, but he did show that industrial production and humane working conditions were compatible.
Fourier emphasized the problem of tedium and urged liberated living in communities called phalanxes. It
should be stressed that early socialist spokesmen lacked any meaningful political following.
1848 Revolutions
These revolutions were both liberal and nationalistic, with a variety of immediate causes depending on
the areas where they broke out. The causes of the series of widespread revolutions were similar: food
shortages and unemployment; a new willingness of political liberals to ally with the working classes in order
to put increased pressure on the government, even though the new allies had different aims; and (outside
France) a movement to create national states that would reorganize or replace existing political entities. The
immediate results of the 1848 revolutions were stunning: the French monarchy fell and many others were
badly shaken. But not one revolution established a new liberal or national state. The political initiative passed
from the liberal to the conservative political groups. Most importantly, after 1848, the European middle class
ceased to be revolutionary; it became increasingly concerned about the protection of its property against
radical political and social movements.
Marxism
The ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels expounded in the Communist Manifesto (1848), have
become some of the most politically influential in modern European history. The major ideas of the Manifesto
were derived from German Hegelianism, French socialism, and British classical economics. The Manifesto
contended that human history must be understood rationally and as a whole. It is the record of humankind’s
coming to grips with physical nature to produce the goods necessary for human survival. Historically, the
organization of the means of production has always involved conflict between the classes—those who owned
and controlled the means of production and those classes who worked for them. Only radical social
transformation can eliminate the social and economic evils that are inherent in the very structure of production.
The proletarian revolution is inevitable and will lead to a society without class conflict—the culmination of
human history.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter treats the growth of industrial society, the intellectual responses to that society, and the unsuccessful
revolutions in France, Austria, Italy, and Germany. The industrial revolution began in eighteenth - century Britain, and in
1850, England remained a generation ahead of its future continental competitors. Material progress was being made,
accompanied by continued population growth and considerable migration from the countryside to the cities. This
movement was aided by railroads; the 1830s and 1840s were the great age of railroad building. It was the age that prized
talent and efficiency. The middle classes tended to measure success in monetary terms and were increasingly dissatisfied
with their lack of political influence. Generally, they were unsympathetic to the plight of the poor. The labor force was
varied, but the two broad categories were factory workers and urban artisans. By the late 1830s, the British working
classes turned to direct political activity and pushed a reform program known as Chartism. As a national movement,
Chartism failed, but it set an example for workers on the continent.
The chapter then focuses on societal developments that resulted from industrialism. In particular, there were
changes in family structure because economic life and home life were no longer the same and the family ceased to be a
close unit of production and consumption. Women received lower wages, and the employment of children in the factories
became a major concern. The English Factory Act of 1833 limited a child’s work day and imposed a mandatory
responsibility on the factory owner for the education of employed children.
The rise in urban population also caused a rise in the crime rate, which resulted in the development of professional law
enforcement officers. Prison reform was another issue that received attention. New prisons were developed from models
in the United States that sought rehabilitation as a result of incarceration. In France, however, imprisonment became
more repressive as the century passed and transportation to infamous penal colonies (Devil’s Island) were designed to rid
the country of its worst elements.
Classical economists such as Malthus and Ricardo dominated policy discussions. They believed generally in
laissez-faire and were pessimistic about the working class. Closely related to the classical economists were the British
utilitarians, led by John Stuart Mill. They believed that the principle of utility (the greatest good for the greatest numbe r)
should constitute the guiding principle of public policy. They were the actual authors of much reform legisla tion.
This period also saw the beginning of the socialist movement. Early socialist doctrines were blurred and the
early spokesmen lacked any meaningful political following. The early socialists generally applauded the new productive
capacity of industrialism but decried industrial mismanagement and thought that human society should be organized as a
community rather than merely as a conglomerate of atomistic, selfish individuals.
Other writers, known as anarchists, rejected both industry and the dominance of government. Some, like
Blanqui, were violent; others, like Proudhon, were peaceful. Many conservative Europeans also hated the view of society
set out by the classical economists. In general, the writers who upheld this position were less brill iant than the liberals
and the socialists, but they did achieve some reforms by posing as protectors of the poor. The price of such protection
was non-participation in politics by the working class.
At mid-century, the ideas of Karl Marx were only one more contribution to the criticism of emerging industrial
society. Marxism differed from its competitors in the brilliance of its author, its claim to scientific accuracy, and its
message of the inevitable collapse of the capitalist order. Marx believed that class conflict in the nineteenth century had
become simplified into a struggle between the bourgeoisie (middle class) and the proletariat (workers), a struggle that the
proletariat would eventually win and that would result in a propertyless and classless society.
In 1848, a series of liberal and national revolutions spread across the continent. The text then details the causes
and courses of the revolutions in Austria-Hungary, France, Italy, Prussia, and the German states. A chronology of the
revolutions is presented within the text for clarity.
ID’s
People
Bentham, Jeremy
Blanc, Louis
Engels, Friedrich
Fourier, Charles
Frankfurt Parliament
Garibaldi, Giuseppe
Louis Philippe
Luddites
Malthus, Thomas
Marx, Karl
Mazzini, Giuseppe
Napoleon III (Louis Napoleon)
Owen, Robert
Proudhon, Pierre
Ricardo, David
Saint-Simon, Count Claude
Henri de
Smith, Adam
Countries/
Land
New Lanark
Time
Periods/Events
Irish Famine
July Monarchy
Magyar Revolt
Revolutions of 1848
Terms
Anarchism
Chartism
Classical economics
Iron law of wages
Laissez-faire
Socialism
Utilitarianism
Utopian socialism
German & Italian Unification/Unrest in A-H and Russia/British Democracy--Ch 22
Key Concept 3.1
The Industrial Revolution spread from Great Britain to the continent, where the state played a greater role in
promoting industry.
PP-1 Explain how and why wealth generated from new
trading, financial, and manufacturing practices and
institutions created a market and then a consumer
economy.
PP-3 Explain how geographic, economic, social, and
political factors affected the pace, nature, and timing of
industrialization in western and eastern Europe.
SP-5 Assess the role of colonization, the Industrial
Revolution, total warfare, and economic depressions in
altering the government’s relationship to the economy,
both in overseeing economic activity and in addressing
its social impact.
IS-3 Evaluate the role of technology, from the printing
press to modern transportation and
telecommunications, in forming and transforming
society.
V. Because of the persistence of primitive agricultural practices and landPP-10 Explain the role of social inequality in
owning patterns, some areas of Europe lagged in industrialization, while facing contributing to and affecting the nature of the French
famine, debt, and land shortages.
Revolution and subsequent revolutions throughout the
• The “Hungry ’40s”
19th and 20th centuries.
• Irish Potato Famine
IS-10 Analyze how and why Europeans have
• Russian serfdom
marginalized certain populations (defined as “other”)
over the course of their history.
Key Concept 3.3
II. Following the British example, industrialization took root in continental
Europe, sometimes with state sponsorship.
B. Industrialization in Prussia allowed that state • Zollverein
to become the leader of a unified Germany,
• Investment in
which subsequently underwent rapid
transportation network
industrialization under government
• Adoption of improved
sponsorship.
methods of manufacturing
• Friedrich List’s National
System
C. A combination of factors, including geography, • Lack of resources
lack of resources, the dominance of traditional
• Lack of adequate
landed elites, the persistence of serfdom in some transportation
areas, and inadequate government sponsorship
accounted for eastern and southern Europe’s lag
in industrial development.
The problems of industrialization provoked a range of ideological, governmental, and collective responses.
I. Ideologies developed and took root throughout society as a response to
industrial and political revolutions.
A. Liberals emphasized popular sovereignty, • Jeremy Bentham
individual rights, and enlightened self• Anti-Corn Law League
interest but debated the extent to which all
• John Stuart Mill
groups in society should actively participate
PP-10 Explain the role of social inequality in
contributing to and affecting the nature of the French
Revolution and subsequent revolutions throughout the
19th and 20th centuries.
PP-14 Explain how industrialization elicited critiques
in its governance.
B. Radicals in Britain and republicans on the
continent demanded universal male suffrage
and full citizenship without regard to wealth
and property ownership; some argued that
such rights should be extended to women.
F. Nationalists encouraged loyalty to the
nation in a variety of ways, including
romantic idealism, liberal reform, political
unification, racialism with a concomitant
anti-Semitism, and chauvinism justifying
national
aggrandizement.
G. A form of Jewish nationalism, Zionism,
developed in the late 19th century as a
response to growing anti-Semitism in both
western and eastern Europe.
• Chartists
• Flora Tristan
nationalists such as the
following:
• J. G. Fichte
• Grimm Brothers
• Giuseppe Mazzini
• Pan-Slavists
anti-Semitism such as the
following:
• Dreyfus Affair
• Christian Social Party in
Germany
• Karl Lueger, mayor of Vienna
• Theodor Herzl
from artists, socialists, workers’ movements, and
feminist organizations.
OS-4 Explain how a worldview based on science and
reason challenged and preserved social order and roles,
especially the roles of women.
OS-8 Explain the emergence, spread, and questioning of
scientific, technological, and positivist approaches to
addressing social problems.
OS-9 Explain how new theories of government and
political ideologies attempted to provide a coherent
explanation for human behavior and the extent to which
they adhered to or diverged from traditional
explanations based on religious beliefs.
OS-10 Analyze the means by which individualism,
subjectivity, and emotion came to be considered a valid
source of knowledge.
OS-12 Analyze how artists used strong emotions to
express individuality and political theorists encouraged
emotional identification with the nation.
SP-1 Explain the emergence of civic humanism and new
conceptions of political authority during the
Renaissance, as well as subsequent theories and
practices that stressed the political importance and
rights of the individual.
SP-3 Trace the changing relationship between states and
ecclesiastical authority and the emergence of the
principle of religious toleration.
SP-4 Analyze how new political and economic theories
from the 17th century and the Enlightenment
challenged absolutism and shaped the development of
constitutional states, parliamentary governments, and
the concept of
individual rights.
SP-7 Explain the emergence of representative
government as an alternative to absolutism.
SP-9 Analyze how various movements for political and
social equality—such as feminism, anti-colonialism, and
campaigns for immigrants’ rights—pressured
governments and redefined citizenship.
SP-11 Analyze how religious and secular institutions
and groups attempted to limit monarchical power by
articulating theories of resistance to absolutism, and by
taking political
action.
SP-17 Explain the role of nationalism in altering the
European balance of power, and explain attempts made
to limit nationalism as a means to ensure continental
stability.
IS-5 Explain why and how class emerged as a basis for
identity and led to conflict in the 19th and 20th
centuries.
IS-6 Evaluate the causes and consequences of persistent
tensions between women’s role and status in the private
versus the public sphere.
IS-7 Evaluate how identities such as ethnicity, race, and
class have defined the individual in relationship to
society.
IS-9 Assess the extent to which women participated in
and benefited from the shifting values of European
society from the 15th century onwards.
IS-10 Analyze how and why Europeans have
marginalized certain populations (defined as “other”)
over the course of their history.
Key Concept 3.4
European states struggled to maintain international stability in an age of nationalism and revolutions.
II. The breakdown of the Concert of Europe opened the door for movements of
national unification in Italy and Germany, as well as liberal reforms elsewhere.
A. The Crimean War demonstrated the
weakness of the Ottoman Empire and
contributed to the breakdown of the Concert
of Europe, thereby creating the conditions in
which Italy and Germany could be unified
after centuries of fragmentation.
B. A new breed of conservative leaders,
PP-3 Explain how geographic, economic, social, and
political factors affected the pace, nature, and timing of
industrialization in western and eastern Europe.
PP-10 Explain the role of social inequality in
contributing to and affecting the nature of the French
Revolution and subsequent revolutions throughout the
19th and 20th centuries.
OS-12 Analyze how artists used strong emotions to
express individuality and political theorists encouraged
including Napoleon III, Cavour, and
Bismarck, co-opted the agenda of nationalists
for the purposes of creating or strengthening
the state.
C. The creation of the dual monarchy of
Austria-Hungary, which recognized the
political power of the largest ethnic minority,
was an attempt to stabilize the state by
reconfiguring national unity.
D. In Russia, autocratic leaders pushed
through a program of reform and
modernization, which gave rise to
revolutionary movements and eventually the
Revolution of 1905.
emotional identification with the nation.
SP-4 Analyze how new political and economic theories
from the 17th century and the Enlightenment
challenged absolutism and shaped the development of
constitutional states, parliamentary governments, and
the concept of
individual rights.
SP-7 Explain the emergence of representative
government as an alternative to absolutism.
• Alexander II
• Sergei Witte
• Peter Stolypin
III. The unification of Italy and Germany transformed the European balance
of power and led to efforts to construct a new diplomatic order.
A. Cavour’s Realpolitik strategies, combined
with the popular Garibaldi’s military
campaigns, led to the unification of Italy.
B. Bismarck employed diplomacy,
industrialized warfare and weaponry, and the
manipulation of democratic mechanisms to
unify Germany.
C. After 1871 Bismarck attempted to maintain • Three Emperors’ League
the balance of power through a complex
• Triple Alliance
system of alliances directed at isolating France. • Reinsurance Treaty
SP-14 Analyze the role of warfare in remaking the
political map of Europe and in shifting the global
balance of power in the 19th and 20th centuries.
SP-17 Explain the role of nationalism in altering the
European balance of power, and explain attempts made
to limit nationalism as a means to ensure continental
stability.
SP-18 Evaluate how overseas competition and
changes in the alliance system upset the Concert of
Europe and set the stage for World War I.
SP-13 Evaluate how the emergence of new weapons,
tactics, and methods of military organization changed
the scale and cost of warfare, required the centralization
of power, and shifted the balance of power.
SP-14 Analyze the role of warfare in remaking the
political map of Europe and in shifting the global
balance of power in the 19th and 20th centuries.
SP-17 Explain the role of nationalism in altering the
European balance of power, and explain attempts made
to limit nationalism as a means to ensure continental
stability.
SP-18 Evaluate how overseas competition and changes
in the alliance system upset the Concert of Europe and
set the stage for World War I.
Chapter 22— The Age of Nation-States
Key Topics
German and Italian Unification
German unification, led by the wily Bismarck, forever changed the balance of power in Europe. This
unification, though, was not a liberal movement, but a highly conservative one. Italian unification, led by
Mazzini, Cavour, Garibaldi, and Victor Emmanuel II, was not as focused as its sister in Germany. However,
it, as well, became more of a reflection of conservative ideology than any liberal hope of true
constitutionalism.
Both the fact and manner of German unification produced long-range effects in Europe. A powerful
new state, rich in natural resources and talented citizens had been created in north central Europe. Militarily
and economically, the German Empire would be stronger than Prussia had been alone. The unification of
Germany would also be a blow to European liberalism because the new state was a conservative creation. The
two states most immediately affected by German and also Italian unification were France and Austria. Change
had to come in each: France returned to a republican government and the Habsburgs organized a dual
monarchy.
Growth of Liberalism
From Britain to Russia, much of Europe took a more liberal turn during the time of German and Italian
unification. Britain not only dealt with workers’ issues, but also adopted more liberal suffrage laws and
attempted to deal with the issue of Irish home rule. The Irish question in Britain was not unlike Austria’s
problems with her nationalities. Austria’s creation of the Dual Monarchy, unfortunately, did not solve her
nationalistic problems, which would eventually lead to the First World War. France, during this time, would
move from empire to republic with the help of quarreling monarchists. Russia took on both changes in
governmental administration and the abolition of serfdom. Although she was not entirely successful in either,
the initial move toward liberalism had been made.
Reforms in the Ottoman Empire
The Tanzimat era of the Ottoman Empire from 1839 to 1876 was a period of significant reform.
These reforms, which were drawn up by administrative councils and issued in the names of sultans, liberalized
the economy, ended the practices of tax-farming and torture, and sought to eliminate corruption. They
extended civic equality to Ottoman subjects regardless of their religion, making Muslims, Christians, and Jews
all equal before the law. In this regard, the Ottoman Empire actually copied European legal and military
institutions. However, it proved difficult to put these reforms into practice. Power struggles among courtiers,
administrators, merchants, and army officers (such as the reformist “Young Turks”) and a growing nationalism
worked against the establishment of genuine political strength and stability. One of the growing themes of
these attempts at reform and modernization was the increasing secularization of the government.
Major Political Trends (1850–1875)
Between 1850 and 1875, the major contours of the political systems that would dominate Europe until
World War I had been drawn. The concept of a nation-state had, on the whole, triumphed, and support for
governments stemmed from various degrees of citizen participation. Moreover, the unity of nations was no
longer based on dynastic links, but on ethnic, cultural, linguistic, and historical bonds. The major sources of
future discontent would arise from the demands of labor to enter the political processes and the still unsatisfied
aspirations of subject nationalities.
The Dreyfus Affair
The false condemnation of Captain Alfred Dreyfus (on the basis of forged evidence) for passing secret
information to the German army was one of the most divisive issues in modern French history. By its
conclusion in 1906 with the declaration of Dreyfus’s innocence, the conservative political forces of the nation
(including the army and the French Catholic church) stood on the defensive. They had allowed the persecution
of an innocent person and had embraced a strongly anti-Semitic posture. The political left (radicals,
republicans, and socialists) developed an informal alliance that outlived the Dreyfus case itself. The divisions,
suspicions, and hopes growing out of the Dreyfus affair would continue to mark the Third Republic until its
defeat by Germany in 1940.
CHAPTER SUMMARY
This chapter tells the story of the unification of Italy and of Germany, the reforms in the Hapsburg Empire,
the restoration of republican government in France, and the continued development of Great Britain toward
democracy.
The Crimean War (1854–1856) shattered the image of an invincible Russia, but more importantly, it ended
the Concert of Europe. For about twenty-five years, instability prevailed in European affairs, and foreign policy
increasingly became an instrument of domestic policy.
The text first considers reforms in the Ottoman Empire after the Crimean War. The reorganization era
lasted from 1839–1876 and included reforms that liberalized the economy, ended the practice of tax farming, and
sought to eliminate corruption. In addition, civic equality was extended to Ottoman subjects regardless of religion.
Though these reformation efforts had mixed effect, one of the underlying themes of all these attempts at reform and
modernization into the early 1900s was the increasing secularization of the government. The decision to enter
World War I on the side of the central powers led to the empire’s collapse.
Nationalists had long wanted a unified Italian state, but they had differed about the manner and goals of
unification. Romantic republicans led by Mazzini and Garibaldi frightened more moderate Italians, who looked
instead to the pope. Unification was carried out by Cavour, the almost conservative Prime Minister of Piedmont.
Cavour attempted to prove to the rest of Europe that the Italians were capable of progressive government and that
they were a military power. Cavour brought Piedmont into the Crimean War to make the latter point and played up
to Napoleon III to gain his sympathy. The text goes on to detail the process of unification under Cavour’s direction.
In late 1860, Italy was united. Venetia was gained in 1866 and Rome was annexed in 1870. The new constitution
provided for a rather conservative constitutional monarchy, which soon became famous for corruption.
The construction of a united German nation was the single most important political development in Europe
between 1848 and 1914. It transformed the balance of economic, military, and international power. Moreover, the
character of the united German state was largely determined by its method of creation. Germany was united by a
conservative army, monarchy (William I), and prime minister of Prussia (Bismarck), among whose chief motives
was the outflanking of Prussian liberals. The text goes on to detail the process of unification through war,
diplomacy, and political manipulation.
The emergence of the two new unified states revealed the weakness of both France and the Hapsburg
Empire. In 1870, Napoleon III was captured at the Battle of Sedan and a republic was proclaimed in France. Paris
became increasingly divided from the rest of the country, and in 1871, a new government called the Commune was
elected to govern the city alone. In May, the forces of the monarchist National Assembly captured the city but could
not agree on a candidate for the throne. The Third Republic was finally regularized in 1875 and proved much
stronger than many suspected and survived a series of scandals, the worst of which was the Dreyfus affair.
Austrian military defeats forced Francis Joseph to come to terms with the Magyar nobility of Hungary.
Through the Compromise of 1867, the Hapsburg Empire became a dual monarchy. Except for the common
monarch, Austria and Hungary were almost separate states. Many of the other national groups within the empire
opposed the Compromise of 1867 and political competition among various nationalist groups resulted in obstruction
and paralysis of parliamentary life.
Russia’s defeat in the Crimean War compelled Alexander II to reconsider his domestic situation. By 1861,
serfdom had been abolished and some reorganization of local government and the judicial system followed, but
Alexander II was only a reformer within the limits of his own autocracy. He was assassinated in 1881. Alexander
III proved to be even more autocratic and repressive.
While the continental nations became unified and struggled toward internal political restructuring, Great
Britain continued to symbolize the confident liberal state. The Reform Act of 1867, passed by the Conservatives
under the leadership of Disraeli, expanded the electorate well beyond the limits earlier proposed by the Liberals. In
the long run, this secured a great deal of support for the Conservative party, but the immediate result was
Gladstone’s election as Prime Minister. Gladstone’s ministry of 1868–1874 witnessed the culmination of British
liberalism. It saw, among other things, passage of the Education Act of 1870, which created the first national
system of schools. After a period of Conservative leadership, Gladstone returned to office in 1880. The major issue
of the next decade was Ireland. The Irish leader for a just land settlement and for home rule was Charles Stewart
Parnell. The Irish question remained unsolved until 1914 and directly affected British domestic politics.
ID’s
People
Alexander II
Alexander III
Bismarck, Otto von
Cavour, Count Camillo
Disraeli, Benjamin
Garibaldi, Giuseppe
Reichstag
Victor Emmanuel II
Young Italian Society
Zola, Emile
Countries/ Land
German Confederation
North German
Confederation
Time Periods/Events
Austro-Prussian War
Crimean War
Danish War
Dreyfus Affair
Dual Monarchy
Franco-Prussian War
Paris Commune
Second Empire
Third Republic
Terms
Ausgleich
Ems Dispatch
Home Rule Bills
Irish Question
Zollverein