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UNIT 6: NATIONALISM AND INDUSTRIALIZATION Metternich Bismarck Key Concept 3.6 European ideas and culture expressed a tension between objectivity and scientific realism on one hand, and subjectivity and individual expression on the other. I. Romanticism broke with neoclassical forms of artistic representation and with rationalism, placing more emphasis on intuition and emotion. A. Romantic artists and artists such as composers broke from classical the following: artistic forms to emphasize • Francisco Goya emotion, nature, individuality, • Caspar David Friedrich intuition, the supernatural, and • J. M. W. Turner national histories in their • John Constable works. • Eugène Delacroix B. Romantic writers expressed similar themes while responding to the Industrial Revolution and to various political revolutions. romantic composers such as the following: • Ludwig van Beethoven • Frédéric Chopin • Richard Wagner • Pyotr Ilich Tchaikovsky • Johann Wolfgang von Goethe • William Wordsworth • Lord Byron • Percy Shelley • John Keats • Mary Shelley • Victor Hugo PP-14 Explain how industrialization elicited critiques from artists, socialists, workers’ movements, and feminist organizations. OS-10 Analyze the means by which individualism, subjectivity, and emotion came to be considered a valid source of knowledge. OS-12 Analyze how artists used strong emotions to express individuality and political theorists encouraged emotional identification with the nation. OS-13 Explain how and why modern artists began to move away from realism and toward abstraction and the non-rational, rejecting traditional aesthetics. Chapter 19B—Triumph of Romanticism Key Topics (Congress of Vienna and beyond) The Congress of Vienna In this settlement, the Bourbon monarchy was restored in France and a non-vindictive boundary settlement left France satisfied. The settlement of eastern Europe divided the victors and enabled Talleyrand, representing France, to join the deliberations. France, Britain, and Austria were able to prevent Russia and Prussia from gaining all of Poland and Saxony respectively. The victors agreed that no single state should dominate Europe; the concept of “balance of power” was formally put into practice and proved to be successful for the next hundred years. Age of Romanticism Romanticism was an intellectual movement that permeated philosophy, art, literature, music, and architecture in the first half of the 19th century. It involved nationalism, strong emotions (melancholy, joy, pain, etc.), imagination, and religion, as the Romantics analyzed their world, both natural and social. This period was a direct reaction to the Enlightenment and its stress on the importance of reason as the philosophes analyzed their world. The immediate intellectual foundations of the movement were provided by Rousseau and Kant. In England and Germany, the term “romantic” came to be applied to all literature that failed to observe classical forms and gave free play to the imagination. English romantics included Blake, Coleridge, Shelley, Wordsworth, and Byron. Perhaps the most important person to write about history at this time was Hegel, who fostered the theory that ideas developed in evolutionary fashion. A predominant set of ideas (the thesis) is challenged by a conflicting set (the antithesis), and out of the conflict emerges a synthesis, which then becomes the new thesis. Islam and Romanticism Under the influence of nationalistic aspirations and romantic sensibilities, Europeans viewed Islam with ambivalence. On the one hand, the Ottoman Empire was reviled as the repressor of independence movements such as the Greek Revolution of 1821; on the other, Europeans viewed the Crusades of the twelfth century through a romantic prism and stories from The Thousand and One Nights were accorded prominence as mysterious and exotic. Napoleon was perhaps the most important individual to reshape Islam and the Middle East in the European imagination. His Egyptian campaign in 1798 opened new opportunities for Europeans to learn about Arabic history and Islamic culture. Two cultural effects on the West of Napoleon’s invasion were an increase in the number of European visitors to the Middle East and a demand for architecture based on ancient models. In the Middle East itself, Napoleon’s invasion demonstrated western military and technological superiority, eventually resulting in Ottoman reforms intended to help the empire compete with European states. CHAPTER SUMMARY (Congress of Vienna and beyond) The Congress of Vienna met from September 1814 to November 1815. The arrangements were essentially made by four great powers: Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia; the key person in achieving agreement was British foreign secretary Castlereagh. The victors agreed that no single state should dominate Europe. Proceedings were interrupted by Napoleon’s return in March, 1815. They soon defeated him at Waterloo. The episode hardened the peace settlement for France, but the Congress settled difficult problems in a reasonable way. No general war occurred for a century. A new intellectual movement known as Romanticism emerged as a reaction against the Enlightenment. The Age of Romanticism was roughly 1780–1830. Romantic religious thinkers appealed to the inner emotions of humankind for the foundation of religion. Methodist teachings, for example, emphasized inward, heartfelt religion and the possibility of Christian perfection in this life. Romanticism glorified both the individual person and individual cultures. German writers such as Herder and the Grimm brothers went in search of their own past and revived German folk culture. Romantic ideas, then, made a major contribution to the emergence of nationalism by emphasizing the worth of each separate people. Romantic thought also modified European understanding of Islam and the Arab world, helping Europeans to see the Muslim world in a more positive light. ID’s People Byron, Lord (George Gordon) Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Wesley, Charles Countries/ Land Time Periods/Events Age of Romanticism Terms Conservative Order/Wars of Independence--Ch 20 Key Concept 2.1 Different models of political sovereignty affected the relationship among states and between states and individuals. IV. The French Revolution posed a fundamental challenge to Europe’s existing political and social order * Revolutionary ideals inspired a slave revolt led by Toussaint L’Ouverture in the French colony of Saint Domingue, which became the independent nation of Haiti in 1804 Evaluate how identities such as ethnicity, race, and class have defined the individual in relationship to society. Assess the role of colonization, the Industrial Revolution, total warfare, and economic depressions in altering the government’s relationship to the economy, both in overseeing economic activity and in addressing its social impact. Analyze how various movements for political and social equality — such as feminism, anticolonialism, and campaigns for immigrants’ rights — pressured governments and redefined citizenship. Analyze how contact with non-European peoples increased European social and cultural diversity, and affected attitudes toward race. Explain the extent of and causes for non-Europeans’ adoption of or resistance to European cultural, political, or economic values and institutions, and explain the causes of their reactions. Explain how European expansion and colonization brought non-European societies into global economic, diplomatic, military, and cultural networks. Analyze how and why Europeans have marginalized certain populations (defined as “other”) over the course of their history. Key Concept 3.3 The problems of industrialization provoked a range of ideological, governmental, and collective responses. I. Ideologies developed and took root throughout society as a response to industrial and political revolutions. A. Liberals emphasized popular • Jeremy Bentham sovereignty, individual rights, and • Anti-Corn Law League enlightened self-interest but debated • John Stuart Mill the extent to which all groups in society should actively participate in its governance. B. Radicals in Britain and republicans • Chartists on the continent demanded universal • Flora Tristan male suffrage and full citizenship without regard to wealth and property ownership; some argued that such rights should be extended to women. C. Conservatives developed a new • Edmund Burke ideology in support of traditional • Joseph de Maistre political and religious authorities, which • Klemens von Metternich was based on the idea that human nature was not perfectible. F. Nationalists encouraged loyalty to the nationalists such as the nation in a variety of ways, including following: romantic idealism, liberal reform, • J. G. Fichte political unification, racialism with a • Grimm Brothers concomitant anti-Semitism, and • Giuseppe Mazzini chauvinism justifying national • Pan-Slavists aggrandizement. anti-Semitism such as the following: • Dreyfus Affair • Christian Social Party in Germany • Karl Lueger, mayor of Vienna PP-8 Analyze socialist, communist, and fascist efforts to develop responses to capitalism and why these efforts gained support during times of economic crisis. PP-10 Explain the role of social inequality in contributing to and affecting the nature of the French Revolution and subsequent revolutions throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. PP-14 Explain how industrialization elicited critiques from artists, socialists, workers’ movements, and feminist organizations. OS-4 Explain how a worldview based on science and reason challenged and preserved social order and roles, especially the roles of women. OS-8 Explain the emergence, spread, and questioning of scientific, technological, and positivist approaches to addressing social problems. OS-9 Explain how new theories of government and political ideologies attempted to provide a coherent explanation for human behavior and the extent to which they adhered to or diverged from traditional explanations based on religious beliefs. OS-10 Analyze the means by which individualism, subjectivity, and emotion came to be considered a valid source of knowledge. OS-12 Analyze how artists used strong emotions to express individuality and political theorists encouraged emotional identification with the nation. SP-1 Explain the emergence of civic humanism and new conceptions of political authority during the Renaissance, as well as subsequent theories and practices that stressed the political importance and rights of the individual. SP-3 Trace the changing relationship between states and ecclesiastical authority and the emergence of the principle of religious toleration. SP-4 Analyze how new political and economic theories from the 17th century and the Enlightenment challenged absolutism and shaped the development of constitutional states, parliamentary governments, and the concept of individual rights. SP-7 Explain the emergence of representative government as an alternative to absolutism. SP-9 Analyze how various movements for political and social equality — such as feminism, anti-colonialism, and campaigns for immigrants’ rights — pressured governments and redefined citizenship. SP-11 Analyze how religious and secular institutions and groups attempted to limit monarchical power by articulating theories of resistance to absolutism, and by taking political action. SP-17 Explain the role of nationalism in altering the European balance of power, and explain attempts made to limit nationalism as a means to ensure continental stability. IS-5 Explain why and how class emerged as a basis for identity and led to conflict in the 19th and 20th centuries. IS-6 Evaluate the causes and consequences of persistent tensions between women’s role and status in the private versus the public sphere. IS-7 Evaluate how identities such as ethnicity, race, and class have defined the individual in relationship to society. IS-9 Assess the extent to which women participated in and benefited from the shifting values of European society from the 15th century onwards. IS-10 Analyze how and why Europeans have marginalized certain populations (defined as “other”) over the course of their history. Key Concept 3.4 European states struggled to maintain international stability in an age of nationalism and revolutions. I. The Concert of Europe (or Congress System) sought to maintain the status quo through collective action and adherence to conservatism. A. Metternich, architect of the Concert of Europe, used it to suppress nationalist and liberal revolutions. B. Conservatives re-established control in many European states and attempted to suppress movements for change and, in some areas, to strengthen adherence to religious authorities. C. In the first half of the 19th • Greek War of Independence century, revolutionaries • Decembrist Revolt in Russia attempted to destroy the status • Polish Rebellion quo. • July Revolution in France PP-10 Explain the role of social inequality in contributing to and affecting the nature of the French Revolution and subsequent revolutions throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. OS-3 Explain how political revolution and war from the 17th century on altered the role of the church in political and intellectual life and the response of religious authorities and intellectuals to such challenges. OS-9 Explain how new theories of government and political ideologies attempted to provide a coherent explanation for human behavior and the extent to which they adhered to or diverged from traditional explanations based on religious beliefs. SP-3 Trace the changing relationship between states and ecclesiastical authority and the emergence of the principle of religious toleration. SP-4 Analyze how new political and economic theories from the 17th century and the Enlightenment challenged absolutism and shaped the development of constitutional states, parliamentary governments, and the concept of individual rights. SP-7 Explain the emergence of representative government as an alternative to absolutism. SP-11 Analyze how religious and secular institutions and groups attempted to limit monarchical power by articulating theories of resistance to absolutism, and by taking political action. SP-14 Analyze the role of warfare in remaking the political map of Europe and in shifting the global balance of power in the 19th and 20th centuries. SP-16 Explain how the French Revolution and the revolutionary and Napoleonic wars shifted the European balance of power and encouraged the creation of a new diplomatic framework. SP-17 Explain the role of nationalism in altering the European balance of power, and explain attempts made to limit nationalism as a means to ensure continental stability. IS-5 Explain why and how class emerged as a basis for identity and led to conflict in the 19th and 20th centuries. Chapter 20—The Conservative Order and the Challenges of Reform (1815-1832) Key Topics Liberalism/Nationalism vs. Conservatism Metternich’s role at the Congress of Vienna and beyond set the stage for a two-faceted response. As conservatism attempted to hold on to the old world, a new world was being constructed from the ideas of liberalism and nationalism. Indeed, the more the old order tried to hold on, the more revolutions would erupt under it. Whether moves for enfranchisement, constitutionalism, independence, or religious freedom, Europe from Great Britain to Russia was irrevocably changed in the early 19th century. Liberals tended to be those who were excluded from the existing political processes; they were not democrats. Hostile to privileged aristocrats, they were contemptuous of the unpropertied class. They sought the removal of economic restraints and believed that labor was simply one more commodity to be bought and sold freely. Liberalism was often complementary to nationalism. The specific problems of the liberals differed according to circumstances; in Germany, for instance, liberals hoped that a unified Germany would be created through the Prussian monarchy, which could later yield to a freer social and political order. Revolutions of the early 1800’s Although not all liberal or nationalistic moves culminated in violence, many did. And, even though they were fought for a variety of reasons, revolts in Spain, Greece, Haiti, Brazil, most of Spanish America, France, and Belgium were successful. Others were important because they set the stage for future change. The Great Reform Bill (1832) This bill called for A) abolishing “rotten” boroughs and replacing them with representatives for the previously unrepresented manufacturing districts and cities and B) doubling the number of voters through a series of new franchises. The Great Reform Bill, however, was not a democratic measure (the basis of voting remained a property qualification), nor did it contribute to the triumph of the middle class (for every new urban district, a new rural district was also drawn, and it was expected that the aristocracy would dominate the rural elections), but it did make revolution unnecessary by admitting the people who sought change to political forum. CHAPTER SUMMARY The defeat of Napoleon and the diplomatic settlement of the Congress of Vienna restored the conservative political and social order in Europe. This chapter deals with the confrontation of this conservative order with potential sources of unrest found in the forces of liberalism, nationalism, and popular sovereignty. The text offers a fairly extensive treatment of nationalism and liberalism. Despite the challenges of liberalism and nationalism, the domestic political order that the restored conservative institutions of Europe established showed remarkable staying power. The Austrian government could make no serious compromises with the programs of liberalism and nationalism, which would have meant the probable dissolution of the empire. The Austrian statesman Metternich epitomized conserva tism. In the immediate post-war years, he was primarily concerned with preventing movements toward constitutionalism in the German states. In Great Britain, unemployment led to demands for the reform of Parliament. For a time, repression brought calm, but in 1817 the Coercion Acts were passed, and in 1819 the Six Acts followed. These attempted to remove the instruments of agitation from the hands of radical leaders and to provide the authorities with new powers. The Bourbon monarchy was restored to France. Supported by the restoration constitution called the Charter, Louis XVIII attempted to pursue a policy of mild accommodation with the liberals. In 1829, the assassination of his nephew persuaded Louis to take a harder line, which was evident by the early 1820s. Foreign policy issues were worked out through congresses or, later, through more informal consultations in a system known as the Concert of Europe. At Aix-la-Chapelle in 1818, Tsar Alexander I suggested that the Quadruple Alliance (Russia, Austria, Prussia, and Great Britain) agree to uphold the borders and existing governments of all European countries. Britain contended that the Quadruple Alliance was intended only to prevent future French aggression and flatly rejected the proposal. The text then details the revolutions that commenced in Spain and Italy in 1820. The final result was that Britain withdrew from continental affairs, but the others agreed to support Austrian intervention in Italy and French intervention in Spain. The revolution that took place in Greece in 1821 was part of a larger problem: the weakness of the Ottoman Empire. The conflicting interests of the major powers prevented any direct intervention in Greece for several years, but finally Britain, France, and Russia supported the Greeks. A Treaty of London in 1830 declared Greece an independent kingdom. The wars of Napoleon also sparked independence movements from European domination in Latin America. Haiti achieved independence from France following a slave revolt led by Toussaint L’Ouverture. The efforts of José de San Martín (Peru and Chile), Simón Bolívar (Venezuela), and Bernardo O’Higgins (Chile) are also discussed—as are events in Mexico and Brazil. Nineteenth-century liberals wanted to limit the arbitrary power of the government against the persons and the property of individual citizens. Liberalism was often complimentary to nationalism in Germany, Italy, and the Austrian Empire. During the 1820s, Russia took the lead in suppressing liberal and nationalistic tendencies. Nicholas I ascended the throne in 1825 and soon put down the Decembrist Revolt. Nicholas I was the most extreme of the nineteenth century autocrats. He embraced a program called Official Nationalism that had the slogan “Orthodoxy, Autocracy and Nationalism.” The program alienated serious Russian intellectual life from the tsarist government. In response to an uprising in Poland in 1830, Nicholas sent in troops and declared Poland to be an integral part of the Russian Empire. Charles X, an ultra-royalist, succeeded to the French throne in 1824 and tried to roll back as much of the revolution as possible. When elections in 1830 resulted in a stunning victory for the liberals, Charles issued the Four Ordinances (July 1830), which amounted to a royal coup d’etat. Rioting broke out in Paris and Charles abdicated. Louis Philippe was proclaimed the new monarch and politically his rule was more liberal than the restoration government. But socially, the revolution of 1830 proved quite conservative and little sympathy was displayed for the lower classes; violent uprisings continued to occur. The July Days in Paris started an independence movement in Belgium. The former Austrian Netherlands had been merged with Holland in 1815, but the upper classes in Belgium had never reconciled themselves to rule by a country with a different language, religion, and economic life. After defeating Dutch troops, Belgian revolutionaries wrote a constitution that was promulgated in 1831. Thanks to the efforts of Britain’s Lord Palmerston, the other European powers recognized Belgium as an independent and neutral state. In Britain, the forces of conservatism and reform made accommodations with each other. Several factors made this possible: a large commercial and industrial class, a tradition of liberal Whig aristocrats, and a strong respect for civil liberties. The chapter also details reforms such as the Emancipation Act (1829) and the Great Reform Bill of 1832. ID’s People Burschenschaften Charles X Concert of Europe Louis Philippe Louis XVIII Nicholas I L’Ouverture, Toussaint Whigs Countries/ Land German Confederation of States United Netherlands Time Periods/Events Decembrist Revolt Greek Revolution Haitian Revolution July Revolution Peterloo Massacre Terms Act of Union Eastern Question Great Reform Bill Liberalism Monroe Doctrine Nationalism Industrial Revolution/1848/Socialism--Ch 21 Key Concept 3.1 The Industrial Revolution spread from Great Britain to the continent, where the state played a greater role in promoting industry. I. Great Britain established its industrial dominance through the mechanization of textile production, iron and steel production, and new transportation systems. A. Britain’s ready supplies of coal, iron ore, and other essential raw materials promoted industrial growth. B. Economic institutions and human capital The Crystal Palace at the Great such as engineers, inventors, and capitalists Exhibition of 1851 helped Britain lead the process of • Banks industrialization, largely through private • Government financial awards to initiative. inventors C. Britain’s parliamentary government romoted commercial and industrial interests, because those interests were represented in Parliament II. Following the British example, industrialization took root in continental Europe, sometimes with state sponsorship. A. France moved toward industrialization at a • Canals more gradual pace than Great Britain, with • Railroads government support and with less dislocation • Trade agreements of traditional methods of production. B. Industrialization in Prussia allowed that • Zollverein state to become the leader of a unified • Investment in transportation Germany, which subsequently underwent network rapid industrialization under government • Adoption of improved methods sponsorship. of manufacturing • Friedrich List’s National System C. A combination of factors, including • Lack of resources eography, lack of resources, the dominance of • Lack of adequate transportation traditional landed elites, the persistence of serfdom in some areas, and inadequate PP-1 Explain how and why wealth generated from new trading, financial, and manufacturing practices and institutions created a market and then a consumer economy. PP-3 Explain how geographic, economic, social, and political factors affected the pace, nature, and timing of industrialization in western and eastern Europe. SP-5 Assess the role of colonization, the Industrial Revolution, total warfare, and economic depressions in altering the government’s relationship to the economy, both in overseeing economic activity and in addressing its social impact. PP-1 Explain how and why wealth generated from new trading, financial, and manufacturing practices and institutions created a market and then a consumer economy. PP-3 Explain how geographic, economic, social, and political factors affected the pace, nature, and timing of industrialization in western and eastern Europe. SP-5 Assess the role of colonization, the Industrial Revolution, total warfare, and economic depressions in altering the government’s relationship to the economy, both in overseeing economic activity and in addressing its social impact. IS-3 Evaluate the role of technology, from the printing press to modern transportation and telecommunications, in forming and transforming government sponsorship accounted for eastern and southern Europe’s lag in industrial development. society. Key Concept 3.2 The experiences of everyday life were shaped by industrialization, depending on the level of industrial development in a particular location. I. Industrialization promoted the development of new classes in the industrial regions of Europe. A. In industrialized areas of Europe (i.e., western and northern Europe), socioeconomic changes created divisions of labor that led to the development of self-conscious classes, such as the proletariat and the bourgeoisie. B. In some of the less industrialized areas of Europe, the dominance of agricultural elites persisted into the 20th century. C. Class identity developed and was reinforced through participation in philanthropic, political, and social associations among the middle classes, and in mutual aid societies and trade unions among the working classes. II. Europe experienced rapid population growth and urbanization, leading to social dislocations. A. Along with better harvests caused in part by the commercialization of agriculture, industrialization promoted population growth, longer life expectancy, and lowered infant mortality. B. With migration from rural to urban areas in industrialized regions, cities experienced overcrowding, while affected rural areas suffered declines in available labor as well as weakened communities. PP-6 Analyze how expanding commerce and industrialization from the 16th through the 19th centuries led to the growth of cities and changes in the social structure, most notably a shift from a landed to a commercial elite. IS-2 Explain how the growth of commerce and changes in manufacturing challenged the dominance of corporate groups and traditional estates. IS-5 Explain why and how class emerged as a basis for identity and led to conflict in the 19th and 20th centuries. IS-7 Evaluate how identities such as ethnicity, race, and class have defined the individual in relationship to society. PP-6 Analyze how expanding commerce and industrialization from the 16th through the 19th centuries led to the growth of cities and changes in the social structure, most notably a shift from a landed to a commercial elite. PP-7 Explain how environmental conditions, the Agricultural Revolution, and industrialization contributed to demographic changes, the organization of manufacturing, and alterations in the family economy. PP-13 Analyze how cities and states have attempted to address the problems brought about by economic modernization, such as poverty and famine, through regulating morals, policing marginal populations, and improving public health. PP-7 Explain how environmental conditions, the Agricultural Revolution, and industrialization contributed to demographic changes, the organization of manufacturing, and alterations in the family economy. PP-15 Analyze efforts of government and nongovernmental reform movements to respond to poverty and other social B. By the end of the century, wages and the quality • Factory Act of 1833 roblems in the 19th and 20th centuries. OS-4 Explain how a worldview based on science and reason of life for the working class improved because of • Mines Act of 1842 challenged and preserved social order and roles, especially laws restricting the labor of children and women, • Ten Hours Act of the roles of women. social welfare programs, improved diet, and the 1847 OS-8 Explain the emergence, spread, and questioning of use of birth control. scientific, technological, and positivist approaches to C. Economic motivations for marriage, while still addressing social problems. important for all classes, diminished as the IS-4 Analyze how and why the nature and role of the family middle-class notion of companionate marriage has changed over time. began to be adopted by the working classes. IS-5 Explain why and how class emerged as a basis for identity and led to conflict in the 19th and 20th centuries. IS-6 Evaluate the causes and consequences of persistent tensions between women’s role and status in the private versus the public sphere IS-7 Evaluate how identities such as ethnicity, race, and class have defined the individual in relationship to society. IS-9 Assess the extent to which women participated in and benefited from the shifting values of European society from the 15th century onwards. V. Because of the persistence of primitive agricultural practices and land- PP-3 Explain how geographic, economic, social, and political owning patterns, some areas of Europe lagged in industrialization, while factors affected the pace, nature, and timing of facing famine, debt, and land shortages. industrialization in western and eastern Europe. • The “Hungry ’40s” IS-10 Analyze how and why Europeans have marginalized • Irish Potato Famine certain populations (defined as “other”) over the course of • Russian serfdom their history. Key Concept 3.3 III. Over time, the Industrial Revolution altered the family structure and relations for bourgeois and working-class families. A. Bourgeois families became focused on the nuclear family and the “cult of domesticity,” with distinct gender roles for men and women. The problems of industrialization provoked a range of ideological, governmental, and collective responses. I. Ideologies developed and took root throughout society as a response to industrial and political revolutions. A. Liberals emphasized popular sovereignty, • Jeremy Bentham PP-8 Analyze socialist, communist, and fascist efforts to develop responses to capitalism and why these efforts gained individual rights, and enlightened self-interest but debated the extent to which all groups in society should actively participate in its governance. B. Radicals in Britain and republicans on the continent demanded universal male suffrage and full citizenship without regard to wealth and property ownership; some argued that such rights should be extended to women. C. Conservatives developed a new ideology in support of traditional political and religious authorities, which was based on the idea that human nature was not perfectible. D. Socialists called for a fair distribution of society’s resources and wealth, and evolved from a utopian to a Marxist “scientific” critique of capitalism. E. Anarchists asserted that all forms of governmental authority were unnecessary, and should be overthrown and replaced with a society based on voluntary cooperation. F. Nationalists encouraged loyalty to the nation in a variety of ways, including romantic idealism, liberal reform, political unification, racialism with a concomitant anti-Semitism, and chauvinism justifying national aggrandizement. • Anti-Corn Law League • John Stuart Mill • Chartists • Flora Tristan • Edmund Burke • Joseph de Maistre • Klemens von Metternich utopian socialists such as the following: • Henri de Saint-Simon • Charles Fourier • Robert Owen Marxists such as the following: • Friedrich Engels • August Bebel • Clara Zetkin • Rosa Luxemburg • Mikhail Bakunin • Georges Sorel nationalists such as the following: • J. G. Fichte • Grimm Brothers • Giuseppe Mazzini • Pan-Slavists support during times of economic crisis. PP-10 Explain the role of social inequality in contributing to and affecting the nature of the French Revolution and subsequent revolutions throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. PP-14 Explain how industrialization elicited critiques from artists, socialists, workers’ movements, and feminist organizations. OS-4 Explain how a worldview based on science and reason challenged and preserved social order and roles, especially the roles of women. OS-8 Explain the emergence, spread, and questioning of scientific, technological, and positivist approaches to addressing social problems. OS-9 Explain how new theories of government and political ideologies attempted to provide a coherent explanation for human behavior and the extent to which they adhered to or diverged from traditional explanations based on religious beliefs. OS-10 Analyze the means by which individualism, subjectivity, and emotion came to be considered a valid source of knowledge. OS-12 Analyze how artists used strong emotions to express individuality and political theorists encouraged emotional identification with the nation. SP-1 Explain the emergence of civic humanism and new conceptions of political authority during the Renaissance, as well as subsequent theories and practices that stressed the political importance and rights of the individual. SP-3 Trace the changing relationship between states and ecclesiastical authority and the emergence of the principle of religious toleration. SP-4 Analyze how new political and economic theories from the 17th century and the Enlightenment challenged absolutism and shaped the development of constitutional states, parliamentary governments, and the concept of individual anti-Semitism such as the following: • Dreyfus Affair • Christian Social Party in Germany • Karl Lueger, mayor of Vienna rights. SP-7 Explain the emergence of representative government as an alternative to absolutism. SP-9 Analyze how various movements for political and social equality — such as feminism, anticolonialism, and campaigns for immigrants’ rights — pressured governments and redefined citizenship. SP-11 Analyze how religious and secular institutions and groups attempted to limit monarchical power by articulating theories of resistance to absolutism, and by taking political action. SP-17 Explain the role of nationalism in altering the European balance of power, and explain attempts made to limit nationalism as a means to ensure continental stability. IS-5 Explain why and how class emerged as a basis for identity and led to conflict in the 19th and 20th centuries. IS-6 Evaluate the causes and consequences of persistent tensions between women’s role and status in the private versus the public sphere. IS-7 Evaluate how identities such as ethnicity, race, and class have defined the individual in relationship to society. IS-9 Assess the extent to which women participated in and benefited from the shifting values of European society from the 15th century onwards. IS-10 Analyze how and why Europeans have marginalized certain populations (defined as “other”) over the course of their history. Key Concept 3.4 European states struggled to maintain international stability in an age of nationalism and revolutions. I. The Concert of Europe (or Congress System) sought to maintain the status quo through collective action and adherence to conservatism. D. The revolutions of 1848 challenged the conservative order and led to the breakdown of the Concert of Europe. PP-10 Explain the role of social inequality in contributing to and affecting the nature of the French Revolution and subsequent revolutions throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. OS-3 Explain how political revolution and war from the 17th century on altered the role of the church in political and intellectual life and the response of religious authorities and intellectuals to such challenges. SP-4 Analyze how new political and economic theories from the 17th century and the Enlightenment challenged absolutism and shaped the development of constitutional states, parliamentary governments, and the concept of individual rights. SP-7 Explain the emergence of representative government as an alternative to absolutism. SP-11 Analyze how religious and secular institutions and groups attempted to limit monarchical power by articulating theories of resistance to absolutism, and by taking political action. SP-14 Analyze the role of warfare in remaking the political map of Europe and in shifting the global balance of power in the 19th and 20th centuries. SP-17 Explain the role of nationalism in altering the European balance of power, and explain attempts made to limit ationalism as a means to ensure continental stability. IS-5 Explain why and how class emerged as a basis for identity and led to conflict in the 19th and 20th centuries. Chapter 21— Economic Advance and Social Unrest (1830-1850) Key Topics Social Impact of the Industrial Revolution The growing population of Europe in the 19th century was focused in the cities and directly tied to the Industrial Revolution. This growing work force included a variety of workers from the well-off to the poor. The British working family foreshadowed what would happen eventually across the Continent. In the early 19th century the family tended to maintain strong ties, occasionally working at the same factory. As the century progressed and Parliament passed legislation that mandated better hours and pay, the family became less a unit of production and more one of consumption. As well, as the need for women and children to work decreased, the mothers were able to focus more on their homes, which included the education of their children. Industrialism and the Family The industrial revolution did not destroy the working-class family, but it did make the European family primarily a unit of consumption alone, rather than a unit of production and consumption. Families came to depend on sharing wages from several sources rather than on sharing work in the home or factory. The wage economy meant that families were less closely bound together than in the past. Developing Economic Theories Classical economists offered pessimistic theories on the direction of society and influenced the response of many governments to the plight of the working class. Growing out of the misery of the working class and the slow progress of positive change, socialists focused on the community as the core of a solution, in direct opposition to the ideas of the classical economists with their focus on the autonomous individual. The Socialist Movement Among the first writers to define the social question were the utopian socialists, notably Saint-Simon, Owen, and Fourier. Their ideas were often visionary and idealistic, but they expected some existing government to carry them out. Saint-Simon believed that modern society required rational management and hoped for a government consisting of a large board of expert directors organizing and coordinating individual activity. Owen’s version of socialism was little more than old-fashioned paternalism transported to the industrial setting, but he did show that industrial production and humane working conditions were compatible. Fourier emphasized the problem of tedium and urged liberated living in communities called phalanxes. It should be stressed that early socialist spokesmen lacked any meaningful political following. 1848 Revolutions These revolutions were both liberal and nationalistic, with a variety of immediate causes depending on the areas where they broke out. The causes of the series of widespread revolutions were similar: food shortages and unemployment; a new willingness of political liberals to ally with the working classes in order to put increased pressure on the government, even though the new allies had different aims; and (outside France) a movement to create national states that would reorganize or replace existing political entities. The immediate results of the 1848 revolutions were stunning: the French monarchy fell and many others were badly shaken. But not one revolution established a new liberal or national state. The political initiative passed from the liberal to the conservative political groups. Most importantly, after 1848, the European middle class ceased to be revolutionary; it became increasingly concerned about the protection of its property against radical political and social movements. Marxism The ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels expounded in the Communist Manifesto (1848), have become some of the most politically influential in modern European history. The major ideas of the Manifesto were derived from German Hegelianism, French socialism, and British classical economics. The Manifesto contended that human history must be understood rationally and as a whole. It is the record of humankind’s coming to grips with physical nature to produce the goods necessary for human survival. Historically, the organization of the means of production has always involved conflict between the classes—those who owned and controlled the means of production and those classes who worked for them. Only radical social transformation can eliminate the social and economic evils that are inherent in the very structure of production. The proletarian revolution is inevitable and will lead to a society without class conflict—the culmination of human history. CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter treats the growth of industrial society, the intellectual responses to that society, and the unsuccessful revolutions in France, Austria, Italy, and Germany. The industrial revolution began in eighteenth - century Britain, and in 1850, England remained a generation ahead of its future continental competitors. Material progress was being made, accompanied by continued population growth and considerable migration from the countryside to the cities. This movement was aided by railroads; the 1830s and 1840s were the great age of railroad building. It was the age that prized talent and efficiency. The middle classes tended to measure success in monetary terms and were increasingly dissatisfied with their lack of political influence. Generally, they were unsympathetic to the plight of the poor. The labor force was varied, but the two broad categories were factory workers and urban artisans. By the late 1830s, the British working classes turned to direct political activity and pushed a reform program known as Chartism. As a national movement, Chartism failed, but it set an example for workers on the continent. The chapter then focuses on societal developments that resulted from industrialism. In particular, there were changes in family structure because economic life and home life were no longer the same and the family ceased to be a close unit of production and consumption. Women received lower wages, and the employment of children in the factories became a major concern. The English Factory Act of 1833 limited a child’s work day and imposed a mandatory responsibility on the factory owner for the education of employed children. The rise in urban population also caused a rise in the crime rate, which resulted in the development of professional law enforcement officers. Prison reform was another issue that received attention. New prisons were developed from models in the United States that sought rehabilitation as a result of incarceration. In France, however, imprisonment became more repressive as the century passed and transportation to infamous penal colonies (Devil’s Island) were designed to rid the country of its worst elements. Classical economists such as Malthus and Ricardo dominated policy discussions. They believed generally in laissez-faire and were pessimistic about the working class. Closely related to the classical economists were the British utilitarians, led by John Stuart Mill. They believed that the principle of utility (the greatest good for the greatest numbe r) should constitute the guiding principle of public policy. They were the actual authors of much reform legisla tion. This period also saw the beginning of the socialist movement. Early socialist doctrines were blurred and the early spokesmen lacked any meaningful political following. The early socialists generally applauded the new productive capacity of industrialism but decried industrial mismanagement and thought that human society should be organized as a community rather than merely as a conglomerate of atomistic, selfish individuals. Other writers, known as anarchists, rejected both industry and the dominance of government. Some, like Blanqui, were violent; others, like Proudhon, were peaceful. Many conservative Europeans also hated the view of society set out by the classical economists. In general, the writers who upheld this position were less brill iant than the liberals and the socialists, but they did achieve some reforms by posing as protectors of the poor. The price of such protection was non-participation in politics by the working class. At mid-century, the ideas of Karl Marx were only one more contribution to the criticism of emerging industrial society. Marxism differed from its competitors in the brilliance of its author, its claim to scientific accuracy, and its message of the inevitable collapse of the capitalist order. Marx believed that class conflict in the nineteenth century had become simplified into a struggle between the bourgeoisie (middle class) and the proletariat (workers), a struggle that the proletariat would eventually win and that would result in a propertyless and classless society. In 1848, a series of liberal and national revolutions spread across the continent. The text then details the causes and courses of the revolutions in Austria-Hungary, France, Italy, Prussia, and the German states. A chronology of the revolutions is presented within the text for clarity. ID’s People Bentham, Jeremy Blanc, Louis Engels, Friedrich Fourier, Charles Frankfurt Parliament Garibaldi, Giuseppe Louis Philippe Luddites Malthus, Thomas Marx, Karl Mazzini, Giuseppe Napoleon III (Louis Napoleon) Owen, Robert Proudhon, Pierre Ricardo, David Saint-Simon, Count Claude Henri de Smith, Adam Countries/ Land New Lanark Time Periods/Events Irish Famine July Monarchy Magyar Revolt Revolutions of 1848 Terms Anarchism Chartism Classical economics Iron law of wages Laissez-faire Socialism Utilitarianism Utopian socialism German & Italian Unification/Unrest in A-H and Russia/British Democracy--Ch 22 Key Concept 3.1 The Industrial Revolution spread from Great Britain to the continent, where the state played a greater role in promoting industry. PP-1 Explain how and why wealth generated from new trading, financial, and manufacturing practices and institutions created a market and then a consumer economy. PP-3 Explain how geographic, economic, social, and political factors affected the pace, nature, and timing of industrialization in western and eastern Europe. SP-5 Assess the role of colonization, the Industrial Revolution, total warfare, and economic depressions in altering the government’s relationship to the economy, both in overseeing economic activity and in addressing its social impact. IS-3 Evaluate the role of technology, from the printing press to modern transportation and telecommunications, in forming and transforming society. V. Because of the persistence of primitive agricultural practices and landPP-10 Explain the role of social inequality in owning patterns, some areas of Europe lagged in industrialization, while facing contributing to and affecting the nature of the French famine, debt, and land shortages. Revolution and subsequent revolutions throughout the • The “Hungry ’40s” 19th and 20th centuries. • Irish Potato Famine IS-10 Analyze how and why Europeans have • Russian serfdom marginalized certain populations (defined as “other”) over the course of their history. Key Concept 3.3 II. Following the British example, industrialization took root in continental Europe, sometimes with state sponsorship. B. Industrialization in Prussia allowed that state • Zollverein to become the leader of a unified Germany, • Investment in which subsequently underwent rapid transportation network industrialization under government • Adoption of improved sponsorship. methods of manufacturing • Friedrich List’s National System C. A combination of factors, including geography, • Lack of resources lack of resources, the dominance of traditional • Lack of adequate landed elites, the persistence of serfdom in some transportation areas, and inadequate government sponsorship accounted for eastern and southern Europe’s lag in industrial development. The problems of industrialization provoked a range of ideological, governmental, and collective responses. I. Ideologies developed and took root throughout society as a response to industrial and political revolutions. A. Liberals emphasized popular sovereignty, • Jeremy Bentham individual rights, and enlightened self• Anti-Corn Law League interest but debated the extent to which all • John Stuart Mill groups in society should actively participate PP-10 Explain the role of social inequality in contributing to and affecting the nature of the French Revolution and subsequent revolutions throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. PP-14 Explain how industrialization elicited critiques in its governance. B. Radicals in Britain and republicans on the continent demanded universal male suffrage and full citizenship without regard to wealth and property ownership; some argued that such rights should be extended to women. F. Nationalists encouraged loyalty to the nation in a variety of ways, including romantic idealism, liberal reform, political unification, racialism with a concomitant anti-Semitism, and chauvinism justifying national aggrandizement. G. A form of Jewish nationalism, Zionism, developed in the late 19th century as a response to growing anti-Semitism in both western and eastern Europe. • Chartists • Flora Tristan nationalists such as the following: • J. G. Fichte • Grimm Brothers • Giuseppe Mazzini • Pan-Slavists anti-Semitism such as the following: • Dreyfus Affair • Christian Social Party in Germany • Karl Lueger, mayor of Vienna • Theodor Herzl from artists, socialists, workers’ movements, and feminist organizations. OS-4 Explain how a worldview based on science and reason challenged and preserved social order and roles, especially the roles of women. OS-8 Explain the emergence, spread, and questioning of scientific, technological, and positivist approaches to addressing social problems. OS-9 Explain how new theories of government and political ideologies attempted to provide a coherent explanation for human behavior and the extent to which they adhered to or diverged from traditional explanations based on religious beliefs. OS-10 Analyze the means by which individualism, subjectivity, and emotion came to be considered a valid source of knowledge. OS-12 Analyze how artists used strong emotions to express individuality and political theorists encouraged emotional identification with the nation. SP-1 Explain the emergence of civic humanism and new conceptions of political authority during the Renaissance, as well as subsequent theories and practices that stressed the political importance and rights of the individual. SP-3 Trace the changing relationship between states and ecclesiastical authority and the emergence of the principle of religious toleration. SP-4 Analyze how new political and economic theories from the 17th century and the Enlightenment challenged absolutism and shaped the development of constitutional states, parliamentary governments, and the concept of individual rights. SP-7 Explain the emergence of representative government as an alternative to absolutism. SP-9 Analyze how various movements for political and social equality—such as feminism, anti-colonialism, and campaigns for immigrants’ rights—pressured governments and redefined citizenship. SP-11 Analyze how religious and secular institutions and groups attempted to limit monarchical power by articulating theories of resistance to absolutism, and by taking political action. SP-17 Explain the role of nationalism in altering the European balance of power, and explain attempts made to limit nationalism as a means to ensure continental stability. IS-5 Explain why and how class emerged as a basis for identity and led to conflict in the 19th and 20th centuries. IS-6 Evaluate the causes and consequences of persistent tensions between women’s role and status in the private versus the public sphere. IS-7 Evaluate how identities such as ethnicity, race, and class have defined the individual in relationship to society. IS-9 Assess the extent to which women participated in and benefited from the shifting values of European society from the 15th century onwards. IS-10 Analyze how and why Europeans have marginalized certain populations (defined as “other”) over the course of their history. Key Concept 3.4 European states struggled to maintain international stability in an age of nationalism and revolutions. II. The breakdown of the Concert of Europe opened the door for movements of national unification in Italy and Germany, as well as liberal reforms elsewhere. A. The Crimean War demonstrated the weakness of the Ottoman Empire and contributed to the breakdown of the Concert of Europe, thereby creating the conditions in which Italy and Germany could be unified after centuries of fragmentation. B. A new breed of conservative leaders, PP-3 Explain how geographic, economic, social, and political factors affected the pace, nature, and timing of industrialization in western and eastern Europe. PP-10 Explain the role of social inequality in contributing to and affecting the nature of the French Revolution and subsequent revolutions throughout the 19th and 20th centuries. OS-12 Analyze how artists used strong emotions to express individuality and political theorists encouraged including Napoleon III, Cavour, and Bismarck, co-opted the agenda of nationalists for the purposes of creating or strengthening the state. C. The creation of the dual monarchy of Austria-Hungary, which recognized the political power of the largest ethnic minority, was an attempt to stabilize the state by reconfiguring national unity. D. In Russia, autocratic leaders pushed through a program of reform and modernization, which gave rise to revolutionary movements and eventually the Revolution of 1905. emotional identification with the nation. SP-4 Analyze how new political and economic theories from the 17th century and the Enlightenment challenged absolutism and shaped the development of constitutional states, parliamentary governments, and the concept of individual rights. SP-7 Explain the emergence of representative government as an alternative to absolutism. • Alexander II • Sergei Witte • Peter Stolypin III. The unification of Italy and Germany transformed the European balance of power and led to efforts to construct a new diplomatic order. A. Cavour’s Realpolitik strategies, combined with the popular Garibaldi’s military campaigns, led to the unification of Italy. B. Bismarck employed diplomacy, industrialized warfare and weaponry, and the manipulation of democratic mechanisms to unify Germany. C. After 1871 Bismarck attempted to maintain • Three Emperors’ League the balance of power through a complex • Triple Alliance system of alliances directed at isolating France. • Reinsurance Treaty SP-14 Analyze the role of warfare in remaking the political map of Europe and in shifting the global balance of power in the 19th and 20th centuries. SP-17 Explain the role of nationalism in altering the European balance of power, and explain attempts made to limit nationalism as a means to ensure continental stability. SP-18 Evaluate how overseas competition and changes in the alliance system upset the Concert of Europe and set the stage for World War I. SP-13 Evaluate how the emergence of new weapons, tactics, and methods of military organization changed the scale and cost of warfare, required the centralization of power, and shifted the balance of power. SP-14 Analyze the role of warfare in remaking the political map of Europe and in shifting the global balance of power in the 19th and 20th centuries. SP-17 Explain the role of nationalism in altering the European balance of power, and explain attempts made to limit nationalism as a means to ensure continental stability. SP-18 Evaluate how overseas competition and changes in the alliance system upset the Concert of Europe and set the stage for World War I. Chapter 22— The Age of Nation-States Key Topics German and Italian Unification German unification, led by the wily Bismarck, forever changed the balance of power in Europe. This unification, though, was not a liberal movement, but a highly conservative one. Italian unification, led by Mazzini, Cavour, Garibaldi, and Victor Emmanuel II, was not as focused as its sister in Germany. However, it, as well, became more of a reflection of conservative ideology than any liberal hope of true constitutionalism. Both the fact and manner of German unification produced long-range effects in Europe. A powerful new state, rich in natural resources and talented citizens had been created in north central Europe. Militarily and economically, the German Empire would be stronger than Prussia had been alone. The unification of Germany would also be a blow to European liberalism because the new state was a conservative creation. The two states most immediately affected by German and also Italian unification were France and Austria. Change had to come in each: France returned to a republican government and the Habsburgs organized a dual monarchy. Growth of Liberalism From Britain to Russia, much of Europe took a more liberal turn during the time of German and Italian unification. Britain not only dealt with workers’ issues, but also adopted more liberal suffrage laws and attempted to deal with the issue of Irish home rule. The Irish question in Britain was not unlike Austria’s problems with her nationalities. Austria’s creation of the Dual Monarchy, unfortunately, did not solve her nationalistic problems, which would eventually lead to the First World War. France, during this time, would move from empire to republic with the help of quarreling monarchists. Russia took on both changes in governmental administration and the abolition of serfdom. Although she was not entirely successful in either, the initial move toward liberalism had been made. Reforms in the Ottoman Empire The Tanzimat era of the Ottoman Empire from 1839 to 1876 was a period of significant reform. These reforms, which were drawn up by administrative councils and issued in the names of sultans, liberalized the economy, ended the practices of tax-farming and torture, and sought to eliminate corruption. They extended civic equality to Ottoman subjects regardless of their religion, making Muslims, Christians, and Jews all equal before the law. In this regard, the Ottoman Empire actually copied European legal and military institutions. However, it proved difficult to put these reforms into practice. Power struggles among courtiers, administrators, merchants, and army officers (such as the reformist “Young Turks”) and a growing nationalism worked against the establishment of genuine political strength and stability. One of the growing themes of these attempts at reform and modernization was the increasing secularization of the government. Major Political Trends (1850–1875) Between 1850 and 1875, the major contours of the political systems that would dominate Europe until World War I had been drawn. The concept of a nation-state had, on the whole, triumphed, and support for governments stemmed from various degrees of citizen participation. Moreover, the unity of nations was no longer based on dynastic links, but on ethnic, cultural, linguistic, and historical bonds. The major sources of future discontent would arise from the demands of labor to enter the political processes and the still unsatisfied aspirations of subject nationalities. The Dreyfus Affair The false condemnation of Captain Alfred Dreyfus (on the basis of forged evidence) for passing secret information to the German army was one of the most divisive issues in modern French history. By its conclusion in 1906 with the declaration of Dreyfus’s innocence, the conservative political forces of the nation (including the army and the French Catholic church) stood on the defensive. They had allowed the persecution of an innocent person and had embraced a strongly anti-Semitic posture. The political left (radicals, republicans, and socialists) developed an informal alliance that outlived the Dreyfus case itself. The divisions, suspicions, and hopes growing out of the Dreyfus affair would continue to mark the Third Republic until its defeat by Germany in 1940. CHAPTER SUMMARY This chapter tells the story of the unification of Italy and of Germany, the reforms in the Hapsburg Empire, the restoration of republican government in France, and the continued development of Great Britain toward democracy. The Crimean War (1854–1856) shattered the image of an invincible Russia, but more importantly, it ended the Concert of Europe. For about twenty-five years, instability prevailed in European affairs, and foreign policy increasingly became an instrument of domestic policy. The text first considers reforms in the Ottoman Empire after the Crimean War. The reorganization era lasted from 1839–1876 and included reforms that liberalized the economy, ended the practice of tax farming, and sought to eliminate corruption. In addition, civic equality was extended to Ottoman subjects regardless of religion. Though these reformation efforts had mixed effect, one of the underlying themes of all these attempts at reform and modernization into the early 1900s was the increasing secularization of the government. The decision to enter World War I on the side of the central powers led to the empire’s collapse. Nationalists had long wanted a unified Italian state, but they had differed about the manner and goals of unification. Romantic republicans led by Mazzini and Garibaldi frightened more moderate Italians, who looked instead to the pope. Unification was carried out by Cavour, the almost conservative Prime Minister of Piedmont. Cavour attempted to prove to the rest of Europe that the Italians were capable of progressive government and that they were a military power. Cavour brought Piedmont into the Crimean War to make the latter point and played up to Napoleon III to gain his sympathy. The text goes on to detail the process of unification under Cavour’s direction. In late 1860, Italy was united. Venetia was gained in 1866 and Rome was annexed in 1870. The new constitution provided for a rather conservative constitutional monarchy, which soon became famous for corruption. The construction of a united German nation was the single most important political development in Europe between 1848 and 1914. It transformed the balance of economic, military, and international power. Moreover, the character of the united German state was largely determined by its method of creation. Germany was united by a conservative army, monarchy (William I), and prime minister of Prussia (Bismarck), among whose chief motives was the outflanking of Prussian liberals. The text goes on to detail the process of unification through war, diplomacy, and political manipulation. The emergence of the two new unified states revealed the weakness of both France and the Hapsburg Empire. In 1870, Napoleon III was captured at the Battle of Sedan and a republic was proclaimed in France. Paris became increasingly divided from the rest of the country, and in 1871, a new government called the Commune was elected to govern the city alone. In May, the forces of the monarchist National Assembly captured the city but could not agree on a candidate for the throne. The Third Republic was finally regularized in 1875 and proved much stronger than many suspected and survived a series of scandals, the worst of which was the Dreyfus affair. Austrian military defeats forced Francis Joseph to come to terms with the Magyar nobility of Hungary. Through the Compromise of 1867, the Hapsburg Empire became a dual monarchy. Except for the common monarch, Austria and Hungary were almost separate states. Many of the other national groups within the empire opposed the Compromise of 1867 and political competition among various nationalist groups resulted in obstruction and paralysis of parliamentary life. Russia’s defeat in the Crimean War compelled Alexander II to reconsider his domestic situation. By 1861, serfdom had been abolished and some reorganization of local government and the judicial system followed, but Alexander II was only a reformer within the limits of his own autocracy. He was assassinated in 1881. Alexander III proved to be even more autocratic and repressive. While the continental nations became unified and struggled toward internal political restructuring, Great Britain continued to symbolize the confident liberal state. The Reform Act of 1867, passed by the Conservatives under the leadership of Disraeli, expanded the electorate well beyond the limits earlier proposed by the Liberals. In the long run, this secured a great deal of support for the Conservative party, but the immediate result was Gladstone’s election as Prime Minister. Gladstone’s ministry of 1868–1874 witnessed the culmination of British liberalism. It saw, among other things, passage of the Education Act of 1870, which created the first national system of schools. After a period of Conservative leadership, Gladstone returned to office in 1880. The major issue of the next decade was Ireland. The Irish leader for a just land settlement and for home rule was Charles Stewart Parnell. The Irish question remained unsolved until 1914 and directly affected British domestic politics. ID’s People Alexander II Alexander III Bismarck, Otto von Cavour, Count Camillo Disraeli, Benjamin Garibaldi, Giuseppe Reichstag Victor Emmanuel II Young Italian Society Zola, Emile Countries/ Land German Confederation North German Confederation Time Periods/Events Austro-Prussian War Crimean War Danish War Dreyfus Affair Dual Monarchy Franco-Prussian War Paris Commune Second Empire Third Republic Terms Ausgleich Ems Dispatch Home Rule Bills Irish Question Zollverein