Download Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle Upper Limb

Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
• Two pectoral girdle.
• Each girdle attach the
upper limbs to axial
skeleton.
• Consist of two bones:
– Clavical anteriorly.
– Scapula posteriorly.
Upper Limb
• Consist of:
– Humerus
– Ulna
– radius
– 8- carpals
– 5- metacarpals
– 14 phalanges
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Carpals
• 8 carpals
arranged in two
transverse rows;
4 bones each
Pelvic (Hip)
Girdle
• Two hip bones
• Bony pelvis:
– pubic symphysis,
sacrum, hip bones
• Hip bone consist of 3
bones
– Ilium: Superior
– Pubis: Inferior
and anterior
– Ischium: inferior
and posterior
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Lower Limb
•
Each lower limb
consist of:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
Femur
Patella
Tibia
fibula
7 tarsals
5 metatarsals
14 phalanges
Tarsal Bones
•
•
•
•
•
•
Calcaneus:
Cuboid bone
Navicular
cuneiform bones
Talus bone
Intertarsal joints:
3
Bone Fracture
• Simple or closed
fracture:
– Does not break the
skin
• Open (compound)
fracture:
– Broken ends
protrude through
the skin
Exercise and Bone Tissue
• Increase mineral salts deposition and production
of collagen fibers
– athletes bones are thicker and stronger
• Without mechanical stress
– Affect mineralization and decreased number of
collagen fibers
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Muscle System
Muscles
• Come from the Latin word mus ( little mouse) because
flexing muscles look like mice scurrying beneath the
skin
• Muscle characteristics
– All muscles contract; essential for all body
movements
– All have the prefixes- myo-, mys- , or sarcoThree types of Muscle Tissue
– Skeletal muscles
– Smooth Muscles
– Cardiac muscle
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Function of Muscle Tissue
1. Producing body movement:
– Walking, nodding …etc.
2. Stabilizing body positions
– Postural muscle - neck muscle…etc.
– Stabilizing joints - maintain body position.
3. Storing and moving substances within the body:
– Intestine, Heart, Arteries
4. Generating heat:
– Contraction  heat  thermogenesis.
Neuromuscular Junction
• The region of contact between the somatic motor
neuron and the membrane (sarcolemma) of a muscle
cell
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Muscle Fatigue
• Inability of the muscle to contract even
though it is still being stimulated
– Lack oxygen  lactic acid accumulate
– Decrease ATP supply
• Is a small amount of
tension in the muscle
due to weak,
involuntary contraction
• Does not produced
movement
• To sustain muscle tone,
small groups of motor
units are alternately
active and inactive in a
shifting pattern ( GI,
back, neck, vessels
• In flaccid muscle, the
tone is lost
Muscle tone
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Coordination with
a muscle groups
• Opposing:
– Prime mover (agonists):
causing a particular
movement.
– Antagonist: opposes or
reverse a movement
– If the prime mover active,
the antagonist relaxes
• Synergists:
– Help the prime movers
Effect of exercise on muscle
• Exercise
– increases muscle size and strength
– immobilization leads to muscle weakness
• Aerobic exercise
–
–
–
–
Increases blood supply to the muscle
Increase mitochondria and store more oxygen
Improve digestion
Enhance neuromuscular coordination
• Resistance exercise:
– Increase muscle size
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Regeneration of muscle tissue is
• Hypertrophy
– enlargement of existing cells
• Hyperplasia:
– increase in the number of fibers (uterus)
• Fibrosis:
– replacement of muscle fibers by fibrous scar
tissue
Gliding
• Flat bone
surfaces move
back-and –forth
and side-to-side
• No significant
alteration of the
angle between
the bones
• Limited to
range
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Flexion
• Decreases the angle
between articulating
bones
Extension
• Opposite of flexion
• Increases the angle
between articulating
bones
• Hyperextension:
– extension greater
than 180°
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Lateral flexion
• Involves intervertebral
joints
Extension
of the
shoulder
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Hyperextension moves a
joint beyond the usual
extended angle
• Abduction:
– Movement away
from the midline
• Adduction
– Movement toward
the midline
• Circumduction:
– The continuous
sequence of flexion,
abduction, extension,
adduction.
– Example moving the
humerus in a circle at
the shoulder joint
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• Rotation:
– The bone
revolves
around its
longitudinal
axis
Special movement
• Elevation:
– upward movement of a
part of the body
• Depression:
– downward movement of a
part of the body
• Protraction:
– movement of a part of the
body anteriorly in the
transverse plane
• Retraction:
– movement of protracted
part back to the
anatomical position.
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Special movements of
the foot
• Inversion:
– movement of the soles medially at
the intertarsal joints
– the soles face each other
• Eversion:
– Movement of the soles laterally at
the intertarsal joints
– The soles away from each other
• Dorsiflexion:
– Bending the foot and ankle in the
direction of the dorsum
– stand on your heels
• Plantar flexion:
– Bending the foot and ankle and the
direction of the planter surface
– Stand on your toes
•
Special movements
Supination:
– a movement of the forearm at the
proximal and distal radioulnar
joint
– the palm is turned anteriorly or
superiorly i.e. anatomical position
•
Pronation
•
Opposition:
– movement of the forearm at the
proximal and distal radioulnar
joints
– the distal end of the radius crosses
over the distal end of the ulna
– The palms turn posteriorly or
inferiorly
– The movement of the thumb of the
carpometacarpal joint
– The thumb moves across the palm
to touch the tip of the fingers on
the same hand i.e. the ability to
grasp
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Nervous System
Structural Classification
• Central nervous system (CNS)
– Occupies the dorsal body cavity; Brain and spinal
cord
• Peripheral nervous system (PNS)
– Cranial nerve and its branches
– Spinal nerves and its branches
– Ganglia (cell bodies outside the central nervous
system)
– Sensory receptors
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Functional Classification of
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)
• Somatic nervous system
– Sensory neurons carry information from somatic
receptors to the central nervous system (CNS)
– Motor neurons carry impulses from CNS to skeletal
muscles
• Autonomic nervous system
– Sensory neurons carry information from receptors in
the visceral organs to CNS
– Motor neurons carry impulses from CNS to
involuntary muscles and glands
Histology of Nervous System
Two cell types:
1. Supporting cell (Also called Neurogliae or glia; glue cells)
–
Support, nourish and protect neurons.
–
Do not generate or propagate action potential
–
Can Multiply and divide (most brain tumors are glioma)
–
Six types
• 4 in the CNS: Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, Microglia,
epindymal cells
• 2 in the PNS: Schwann cells , and Satellite cells
2. Neurons:
–
Transmit nerve impulses
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Neurons
(nerve cell)
• consist of :
1. cell body contains Nucleus, Cytoplasm, Organelles (except
centrioles), Nissl bodies (prominent clusters of rough ER,
Neurofibrils ( maintain cell shape)
2. dendrites contains Short, and highly branched. The receiving
portion of a neuron
3. axon: long branch
Axons
– Only one axon per neuron
– Transmit nerve impulses away from the cell body
– Axon terminals are fine processes at the end of the axon
and contain vesicles that store the neurotransmitters
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• Myelin sheath:
– Multilayer lipid and protein
covers the axons
– Electrically insulates axons
which increase the speed of
nerve impulse
– node of ranvier
•
•
•
•
•
•
Nuclei: cell bodies in the CNS
Ganglia: small collections of cell bodies found in PNS
Tracts: Bundle of nerve fibers running through CNS
Nerves: Bundle of nerve fibers in the PNS
White matter: aggregations of myelinated fibers (tracts)
Gray matter: mostly unmyelinated fibers and cell bodies
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Characteristics of neurons
• Long-lived
– Generally last a life time
• Amitotic
– neurons do not divide
• High metabolic rate
– This means high oxygen demand and lots of
mitochondria
– Neurons require glucose.
1 Stimulus
Skin
Receptor
Integration
center
2 Sensory neuron
4 Motor neuron
3
Interneuron
5 Effector
• Reflexes are rapid, predictable, involuntarily responses to
stimuli
• Types
– Autonomic reflexes:
• Regulate smooth muscles, heart, glands
• Example: pupillary reflex
– Somatic reflexes
• All reflexes that stimulate skeletal muscles
• Reflex arc elements:
– Sensory receptor ( reacts to stimuli), Sensory (afferent)
neuron, CNS integration center, Motor (efferent) neuron,
Effector organ
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Chemical
Synapse
Transmits
a signal as
Follows:
• Nerve impulse reach the synaptic end bulb of presynaptic axon
• The vesicles release neurotransmitter into the synaptic cleft
• neurotransmitter attach to the receptors in the postsynaptic
neurons which result in depolarization.
Central Nervous System (CNS)
• Brain components
–
–
–
–
Cerebral hemispheres
Diencephalons
Brain stem
cerebellum
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Cerebral Hemispheres
• Paired, most superior part of the brain
• Encloses most of the brain stem
• the elevated ridges of the surface
called gyri separated by shallow
grooves called sulci
• Fissures:
– deeper groove separate large
regions of the brain
– cerebral hemispheres separated by
longitudinal fissure
• Fissures and sulci divide the
hemispheres into lobes
• Left hemisphere controls right side of
the body and right hemisphere
controls the left side of the body
Lobes of the cerebral hemisphere
• Frontal
– Motor control area
– Intellectual area
• Parietal
– General sensation
• Temporal
– For hearing and smell
• Occipital
– Visual area
• Insula
– For taste
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Somatic
sensory
area
• located in the parietal lobe
• The left side receives impulses from the right side
and vice versa
Primary
Motor
area
• Allow us consciously to move our skeletal muscles
• Located in the frontal lobe
• The left side receives impulses from the right side and vice
versa
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Broca’s
area
• Specialized area involved in our ability to speak
• Found at the base of precentral gyrus
• Located in only one cerebral hemisphere (usually
left)
• Damage to this area causes inability to say words
properly
Speech
area
• Located at the junction of the temporal lobe and
the parietal lobe, and occipital lobe
• Allow us to sound words
• Only in one hemisphere, usually the left
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• Higher intellectual reasoning located in the
anterior part of the frontal lobe
• Language comprehension (word meaning)
located in the frontal bone
Diencephalons
• Thalamus:
• Hypothalamus
• epithalamus
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• Thalamus
– Relay station for
sensory impulses
passing upward to
the sensory cortex
Hypothalamus
• Under the thalamus
• Connect to pituitary
gland
• Center of many drives
and emotions; thirst,
appetite, sex, pain,
pleasure (connected to
the limbic system)
• Plays a role in the
regulation of body
temperature, water
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Epithalamus
• Epithalamus components
– Pineal body
• Secret melatonin.
– Choroids plexus:
• Secret
cerebrospinal fluid
Brain stem
• Consist of
– Midbrain
– Pons
– Medulla oblongata
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• Cerebral aqueduct
travels through the
midbrain connecting
the third ventricle to
the fourth ventricle
• Contain Reflex
centers, involved in
vision and hearing
midbrain
Pons
• round structure
protrudes below the
midbrain
• Have nuclei
involved in
breathing
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• Most inferior part of
the brain stem
• Contain centers that
control heart rate,
blood pressure,
breathing,
swallowing,
vomiting…etc.
Medulla Oblongata
cerebellum
• Projects dorsally from under the occipital lobe
• Has two hemispheres and convoluted surface
• Controls our balance
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Menings
• Three connective
tissue covering the
brain, from
superficial to deep:
1. Dura mater:
Leathery, outer most
layer covers the brain
and continues with
spinal dura mater
2. Arachnoid mater:
Has extensions span
the subarachnoid
space and attach to
pia mater
Menings
3. Pia mater: clings
tightly to brain
surface and spinal
cord following every
fold
• Arachnoid villi:
protrude through
dura mater, absorb
CSF
• Subarachnoid
space: between the
arachnoid and pia
mater filled with
CSF
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Brain Ventricles
•
•
•
•
Lateral ventricles in the cerebral hemispheres
Third ventricle in the diencephalon
Cerebral canal in the midbrain
Fourth ventricle between the pons and cerebellum
Cerebrospinal Fluid
• Coroid plexus secret CSF
in the ventricles
• From lateral ventricles 
to third ventricle 
cerebral aqueduct 
fourth ventricle  central
canal of spinal cord and
subarachnoid space 
arachnoid villi  blood
• changing in color,
appearance, or
composition, indicates
disease.
• Obstruction of circulation
causes hydrocephalus
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Cranial Nerves
• 12 pairs serve the head
and the neck
• Only the vagus nerve
extends to the thoracic
and abdominal cavities
• Most cranial nerves are
mixed nerves except:
– Olfactory (I), Optic
(II), and
vestibulocochlear
(VIII) are sensory
nerves
Spinal Cord
• Enclosed in the vertebral column
• Continuation of the brain stem
• Extend from the foramen magnum
to the first or second lumbar
vertebra
• Covered by meninges that extend
beyond the spinal cord
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Gray matter
of spinal cord
and spinal
root
• Gray mater butterfly shape, surrounds the central canal
• Ventral horn contains somatic motor neurons cell bodies
that sends their axons out to the ventral root of the cord
• Dorsal horn receives sensory axons. The cell bodies of
sensory neurons are found in the dorsal root ganglion
White matter of the spinal cord
• Composed of myelinated fiber tracts (made up of axons )
• Divided into three regions in each side
– Posterior column: has ascending tracts ( sensory)
– Lateral and anterior columns has both ascending and
descending (motor) tracts
32
Peripheral nervous system
• outside the central nervous system
• Consist of:
– nerves
– ganglia
Structure of a Nerve
• A nerve is a bundle
of neuron fibers
outside the CNS.
• Mixed nerves carry
both sensory and
motor fibers
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Spinal nerves and nerve
plexuses
• Spinal nerves
– 31 pairs
– Named for the region of the
cord from which they arise from
(cervical, thoracic, lumbar,
sacral)
• plexuses:
– four plexuses that innervate the
limbs
Autonomic Nervous System
• Two divisions have opposite effect
– Sympathetic
– Parasympathetic
• Most organs have both innervations
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•
•
•
•
Parasympathetic
Division
Also called rest and digest
Active when the body is at rest
Allows us to conserve energy
Located in brain nuclei of four cranial
nerves (III, VII, XI, X) send out their
axons in cranial nerves to serve the
organ in the head and neck region, and
abdomen
• Located in the sacral region (S2
through S4) of the spinal cord. They
leave the spinal cord to pelvic cavity
Sympathetic division
• Also called fight-orflight
• Located in the spinal
cord between T1 through
L2
• Increase heart rate, blood
pressure, glucose level,
dilate bronchioles in the
lungs, dilate blood
vessels in skeletal
muscle, withdrawal of
blood from digestive
organs
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Special Senses
Senses
• Special senses
– Taste, Smell, Sight, Hearing and balance
– Large, complex sensory organs ( eyes, ears)
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• Eye ball
– Sphere, enclosed and protected
by the bony orbit
• Eyelids:
– protect the eyes anteriorly
– Meet at the corners of the eye
to form medial and lateral
canthus
• Eyelashes:
– projecting from the border of
each eyelid
• Meibomian glands:
– modified sebaceous glands in
the eyelid
– Produce oily secretion that
lubricates the eye
• Six
muscles
attach to
the outer
surface of
each eye
• Produce
gross eye
movement
External and
accessory structures
Extrinsic Eye Muscles
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Lacrimal apparatus
• Lacrimal gland
– located above the
lateral end of each eye
– Secret tears into the
anterior surface of the
eye
• Lacrimal canals
– located medially
• Lacrimal sac
• Nasal Lacrimal duct:
– empties into the nasal
cavity
Conjunctiva
• lines the eyelids and
covers the outer
surface of the
eyeball
• Ends at the edge of
the cornea
• Secretes mucus that
lubricate and
moisten the eyeball
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Sclera
• Outermost,
thick, white
fibrous
connective
tissue (white
of the eye)
Cornea:
• The anterior portion, transparent, allows light to
enters the eye.
Choroid
•
•
•
Middle, blood rich layer
Ciliary body (muscle) attaches the lens
Iris: color of the eye has a round opening called pupil
which regulates the amount of light entering the eye
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Retina
• inner most layer
• Contains
photoreceptors except
in the optic disc (blind
spot) where the optic
nerve exits the eye
• Rods: Allow us to see
gray tones in dim light
• Cons: for accurate,
colored (green, blue,
red) vision.
Concentrated in fovea
centralis of macula
lutea
Lens
• Flexible biconvex structure
• Held by the suspensory ligament attached to the ciliary body
• Divide the eye cavity into anterior chamber that contain aqueous
humor and posterior chambers contain vitreous humor
40
Light Refraction
• The lens focuses the light
on the retina macula lutea
• The lens refractive power
changes to properly focus
the light on the retina
– More convex  more
refraction
– Flatter  less
refraction
Visual fields and
visual pathways to
the brain
•
•
•
•
Optic nerve
Optic chiasm:
Optic tract:
Optic
radiation
• Occipital lobe
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Eye reflexes
• Photopupillary reflex:
– the pupils constrict immediately when exposed to
bright light
– Prevent damaging the photoreceptors
• Accommodation pupillary reflex:
– when viewing close objects; provide acute vision
Anatomy
of the Ear
• Three major ears:
– External and middle ear involved in hearing
only
– internal ear involved in hearing and equilibrium
42
External ear
• Composed of Auricle and earlobe surrounding the
external auditory opening
• supported by cartilage except ear lobe.
• External auditory canal is short, narrow ends at the ear
drum which separates the outer from the middle ear
• Ceruminous glands in the skin secrete cerumen
Middle
Ear
• Small air-filled cavity within the temporal bone
• Located between eardrum laterally and a bony wall medially
• Contains Ossicles: three bones (hammer, incus, stapes) that
transmit vibration from tympanic membrane to oval window
• Auditory (Eustachian) tube links the middle ear cavity with the
throat. It equalizes the pressure in the middle ear with the external
ear
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Inner
Ear
• located within the temporal bone behind the eye socket
• Three subdivisions:
– Cochlea contains organ of Corti (hearing)
– Vestibule and semicircular canal for balance
Mechanism of hearing
• Sound waves enter the external
auditory canal to the eardrum to
the ossicles to the inner ear to the
receptor cells in the organ of corti
• The impulse carried by the
cochlear nerve to the auditory
cortex in the temporal lobe
44
Chemoreceptor
• Two kinds
– Olfaction ( smell): wider range
– Taste : four types
Olfactory receptors & sense of smell
• Olfactory receptors:
– Very sensitive; pick up small differences
– located in the roof of each nasal cavity
• Olfactory pathway
– Chemicals dissolve in mucus and stimulate the receptors. Then
olfactory nerve carry it to the olfactory cortex
• Olfactory pathway tied to limbic system (emotions)
• Anosmias:
– Loss of smell sensation due to trauma, inflammation, allergy
• Olfactory auras:
– olfactory hallucinations
45
Olfactory
epithelium
&
pathway
Taste Buds & Sense of Taste
• Four basic taste sensations:
– Sweet: respond to sugar, saccharine, amino acids
– Sour: acid
– Bitter: alkaloids
– Salty: metal ions
• Other flavors are combination of the four tastes
• Affected by sense of smell
46
Taste
Buds &
Sense
of Taste
• Taste Buds
– Receptors of taste sensation Found mostly on the
tongue.
– few taste receptors found in the soft palate and inner
surface of the cheeks.
Endocrine System
47
The endocrine
system
• The Organs of the
endocrine system are
small. They Coordinates
and directs the activity
of the cells
• Hormones released into
the blood and
transported throughout
the body
Mechanisms of Hormone Action
• Hormones attach to specific receptors on/in the cell and alter
the cellular activity
• Regulates processes such as:
– Reproduction
– Growth and development
– Mobilizing body defenses against stressors
– Maintaining electrolyte, water and nutrient balance of the
blood
– Regulating cellular metabolism and energy balance
– Maintaining body homeostasis.
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Steroidal hormones
• Lipid-soluble
molecules
• binds to a specific
receptor and to a
specific sites on the
cell’s DNA activating
certain genes which
result in the synthesis
of new proteins.
Nonsteroidal hormones, protein and
peptide hormones
• The hormones
binds to receptors
on the target cell’s
plasma membrane
49
Control of Hormone Release
• The stimuli that activate the endocrine
organs fall into three major categories
1. Hormonal
2. Humoral
3. Neural
Hormonal stimulus
• Hypothalamic hormones
stimulate the anterior pituitary
gland to secrete its hormones
• Anterior pituitary hormones
stimulate other endocrine organs
to release their hormones into
the blood
• As the hormones produced by
the final target glands increase in
the blood, they inhibit the
release of anterior pituitary
hormones; negative feed back
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