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INTRODUCTION AND LEARNING OBJECTIVES
When the western Roman empire crumbled in the Mediterranean basin, different groups of Germanic peoples began to
form their own states in northern and western Europe. These peoples were not Roman descendants with classical GrecoRoman knowledge, but were newly transformed nomads who received little Roman influence. When their commercial link
with the Mediterranean basin was severed by Muslim invasions, western Europe was reduced to a rural society, with its
rudimentary agriculture unable to produce much surplus or support a large centralized state. The great Roman power that
once provided considerable cultural unity, social stability, and commercial life now gave way to constant fighting among
the Germanic peoples themselves and frequent invasions by other peoples, notably Muslims, Magyars, and Vikings.
Surely enough, western Europe had a tough and rough beginning during the postclassical era.
The central theme of this chapter is the making of feudual Europe during the early medieval era (500 to 1000 C.E.). It
consisted of developments in three areas' political decentralization, a self-sufficient rural economy, and Christianity as a
cultural foundation. The authors begin their discussion with a number of Germanic successor states seeking political order
in the midst of the violence that haunted Europe. Among them the most impressive were the Franks, who, especially
under the leadership of Charlemagne, extended their kingdom into an empire with some measure of centralization. The
quick collapse of Charlemagne's empire, however, proved that Europe was not yet ready for the formation of large
centralized states. Therefore, like other Germanic peoples in England and Germany, the Franks also built decentralized
but more effective regional kingdoms to cope with external pressures. At this conjuncture, the authors' discussion leads
student to see the interplay of two processes in the formation of feudal Europe. One was the development of a
complicated and multitiered network of lord-vassal relationships for the provision of self-defense during a period of weak
central authority and invasions. The other was the merging of slaves and free peasants into a new category called serfs
who pledged their labor and obedience to a lord in exchange for security, enabling lords to organize large estates into
self-sufficient manors. Economic activity on manors was slow and inefficient, but it was able to support a decentralized
feudal order, and by the 10th century, political stability began to serve as a foundation for economic recovery.
The formation of feudal Europe also involved the rise of Christianity as a spiritual authority and cultural foundation. Here
we witness the political alliance between state authorities and the Roman church, evidenced in such important events as
the conversion of Clovis, the coronation of Charlemagne and Otto I, and English kings' adoption of Roman Christianity.
Such alliances not only strengthened the spiritual authority of the papacy, but also provided secular authorities with
access to educated and literate individuals for political service. Meanwhile, the politics of conversion from above was well
supported and reinforced by the development of monasteries from below. Not only did monasteries provide a great variety
of services to meet the needs of rural populations, they also kept alive the intellectual life of western Europe. The
conversion of western Europe to Roman Christianity proved that Greco-Roman traditions were not completely forgotten,
as western Christianity preserved elements from the classical traditions of the Mediterranean and served as the
foundation for a new cultural unity in western Europe.
After reading and studying this chapter, students should understand and be able to discuss the following:
After reading this chapter, students should understand and be able to discuss the following issues:
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the emergence of Germanic successor states and their struggle for political order
the political institutions and economic system that comprised feudal Europe
the conversion of western Europe to Roman Christianity
comparisons between western Europe and other postclassical societies
INTRODUCTION AND LEARNING OBJECTIVES
After centuries of instability, chaos, and recovery during the early middle ages, western Europe emerged as a vibrant and
powerful society during the "high middle ages," the period from about 1000 to 1300 C.E. Refuting an older image of the
middle ages as an unfortunate interlude between the glories of the classical Greco-Roman ages and modern times, the
authors present the high middle ages as a story of progress and vigorous development full of creative tensions. Dramatic
changes in politics, economy, and culture testify to the vitality of feudalism and Christianity which laid down the
institutional and cultural foundations for innovations and progress.
The authors' discussion shows the growing dynamism of the high middle ages through four interrelated aspects: the rise
of regional states, economic growth, the role of the Roman Catholic church, and European expansion epitomized by the
crusades. Although the European dream of an empire did not die, what was accomplished during this period was the
creation of powerful regional states based on principles of feudalism. Was the failure to build a European empire a
tragedy for European history? Or were competitive regional states a vital source of European strength? While these
issues are subject to debate, the authors argue that regional monarchies organized more effective governments and
brought about greater regional stability than before, which in turn, encouraged population growth and innovation in
agricultural production. Indeed, the high middle ages saw an agricultural revolution that provided abundant food supply for
rapid urbanization.
While commercialization and urbanization were common in many other societies, in western Europe these processes
were accompanied by the growth of the independent authority of the Roman Catholic church, the revival of interest in
classical rational philosophy, the rise of universities, and the prominence of a merchant class in increasingly independent
cities. All these had deep implications for the future development of western Europe, and the combination of these
elements help to explain the vitality of feudalism during the high middle ages and the rise of modern Europe in the
centuries to follow.
The authors also point out that during the high middle ages Europe was no longer the prey of foreign powers, but became
a feared military power and a commercial competitor with the Arab world. Beginning about the mid-11th century,
Europeans embarked upon a series of expansive ventures in the Atlantic, the Baltic, and the Mediterranean. Although the
crusades against Islam in later centuries did not show European military superiority to the Arab world, these military
ventures signaled clearly that Europeans were beginning to play a much larger role in the affairs of the eastern
hemisphere than they had during the early middle ages. What was the nature of European expansion during the high
middle ages? Were the crusades religious wars or commercial ventures? What accounted for the first instance of
European expansion since the fall of Rome? The authors' discussion in this chapter leaves ample room for students to
form their own opinions.
After studying this chapter, students should understand and be able to discuss the following issues:
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the rise of regional states and their relations with the Roman Catholic church
the dynamic growth of agriculture and urbanization
social change within the three estates
the role of the Roman Catholic church in cultural development
the nature of European expansion