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Maunakea Invasive Species Management Plan The endemic Hawaiian Wēkiu Bug (Nysius wekiuicola) feeding on an introduced Flesh Fly (Sarcophagid). Technical Report 191 February 2015 Prepared by: Casper Vanderwoude1, Frederick Klasner2, Jessica Kirkpatrick2, Springer Kaye3 1 Hawai‘i Ant Lab, Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, University of Hawai’i, 16 E. Lanikaula St. Hilo, HI 96720. Email: [email protected] 2 Office of Mauna Kea Management 640 N. A‘ohōkū Place. Hilo, HI 96720 3 Big Island Invasive Species Committee 23 E. Kawili St. Hilo, HI 96720 A cooperative effort of: Office of Maunakea Management University of Hawai`i at Hilo -andThe Hawai`i-Pacific Islands Cooperative Ecosystems Studies Unit & Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit University of Hawai`i at Mānoa PCSU is a cooperative program between the University of Hawai`i and U.S. National Park Service, Cooperative Ecological Studies Unit. Organization Contact Information: Casper Vanderwoude, [email protected] Recommended Citation: Vanderwoude, C., F. Klasner, J. Kirkpatrick and S. Kaye. 2015. Maunakea Invasive Species Management Plan. Technical Report No. 191. Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit, University of Hawai‘i, Honolulu, Hawai‘i. 84 pp. Key words: Invasive species, IAS, management plan, weeds, prevention, response, monitoring Place key words: Hawaii, Mauna Kea, Maunakea Science Reserve, Halepōhaku, astronomy precinct, Office of Maunakea Management Editor: David C. Duffy, PCSU Unit Leader (Email: [email protected]) Series Editor: Clifford W. Morden, PCSU Deputy Director (Email: [email protected]) About this technical report series: This technical report series began in 1973 with the formation of the Cooperative National Park Resources Studies Unit at the University of Hawai'i at Mānoa. In 2000, it continued under the Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit (PCSU). The Pacific Cooperative Studies Unit at the University of Hawai'i at Mānoa works to protect cultural and natural biodiversity in the Pacific while encouraging a sustainable economy. PCSU works cooperatively with private, state and federal land management organizations, allowing them to pool and coordinate their efforts to address problems across the landscape. TABLEOFCONTENTS Section1.IntroductionandBackground.......................................................................................................................4 Foreword.......................................................................................................................................................................................................4 Background...................................................................................................................................................................................................4 Organization.................................................................................................................................................................................................5 GeographyoftheManagementArea.................................................................................................................................................6 Halepōhaku......................................................................................................................................................................8 RoadCorridor..................................................................................................................................................................8 AstronomyPrecinct......................................................................................................................................................8 MaunaKeaScienceReserve......................................................................................................................................8 NaturalAreaReserve(NAR).....................................................................................................................................9 PoliciesforManagementofInvasiveSpeciesonMaunakea.................................................................................................10 Section2.Prevention..........................................................................................................................................................11 PotentialInvasiveSpecies:ThreatsandImpacts......................................................................................................................11 Plants................................................................................................................................................................................11 Vertebrates.....................................................................................................................................................................12 Invertebrates.................................................................................................................................................................14 TraitsofInvasiveAnts...............................................................................................................................................14 PotentialThreatPathways..................................................................................................................................................................18 VehiclesandVessels...................................................................................................................................................19 GoodsandOtherCommodities..............................................................................................................................19 People...............................................................................................................................................................................19 RegulatedPathways...............................................................................................................................................................................19 VehiclesandVessels...................................................................................................................................................20 Commodities..................................................................................................................................................................20 PeopleandPossessions.............................................................................................................................................20 Non‐RegulatedPathways.....................................................................................................................................................................21 VehiclesandVessels...................................................................................................................................................21 Commodities..................................................................................................................................................................21 PeopleandPossessions.............................................................................................................................................21 AnalysisofThreatPathwaysandProposedManagementOptions...................................................................................21 RecommendedPreventionStrategy................................................................................................................................................25 Section3.MonitoringforNewandEstablishedInvasiveSpecies....................................................................29 GeneralPrinciples....................................................................................................................................................................................29 AnalysisofRisk:ManagementZones..............................................................................................................................................29 Halepōhaku....................................................................................................................................................................29 RoadwayCorridor.......................................................................................................................................................30 AstronomyPrecinct....................................................................................................................................................30 MaunaKeaScienceReserve....................................................................................................................................31 AnalysisofRisk:PotentialThreatSpecies....................................................................................................................................33 Plants................................................................................................................................................................................33 Vertebrates.....................................................................................................................................................................39 Arthropods.....................................................................................................................................................................41 Section4.ControlofEstablishedInvasiveSpecies..................................................................................................44 GeneralPrinciples....................................................................................................................................................................................44 LegislationandRegulatoryRequirements...................................................................................................................................45 TheEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).................................................................................................45 Hawai‘iDepartmentofAgriculture......................................................................................................................45 Hawai‘iDepartmentofHealth................................................................................................................................46 Hawai‘iDepartmentofLandandNaturalResources....................................................................................46 OtherConsiderationsforPesticideUseonMaunakea.................................................................................46 P a g e 2 | 84 ControlMethods.......................................................................................................................................................................................46 Plants................................................................................................................................................................................47 Invertebrates.................................................................................................................................................................48 SiteandSpeciesPriorities....................................................................................................................................................................50 InvasiveSpeciesControlPlans...........................................................................................................................................................53 EstablishedPlantSpecies.........................................................................................................................................53 EstablishedArthropods............................................................................................................................................57 High‐PriorityArthropodThreats..........................................................................................................................59 Section5.RapidResponse.................................................................................................................................................62 Background.................................................................................................................................................................................................62 Outline...........................................................................................................................................................................................................62 Pre‐IncursionPlanning.........................................................................................................................................................................63 LegislativePowertoAct...........................................................................................................................................63 RegistrationandPermitstoApplyControlChemicals.................................................................................63 AvailabilityofChemicalsandApplicationEquipment.................................................................................64 AccesstoEmergencyFunds....................................................................................................................................64 InitialDetectionandResponse..........................................................................................................................................................64 TheEmergencyResponseManagementCommittee.....................................................................................64 RolesandResponsibilities.......................................................................................................................................68 DelimitingSurvey....................................................................................................................................................................................71 DraftManagementPlan.........................................................................................................................................................................72 SurveillancePlan..........................................................................................................................................................73 Treatment.......................................................................................................................................................................73 Communications..........................................................................................................................................................74 MovementControls.....................................................................................................................................................74 Budget..............................................................................................................................................................................74 ResearchPriorities......................................................................................................................................................75 OrganizationalStructure......................................................................................................................................................................75 TheNRPManager........................................................................................................................................................76 OperationsManager...................................................................................................................................................76 TheFieldController....................................................................................................................................................77 TheFinanceOfficer.....................................................................................................................................................77 CommunicationOfficer.............................................................................................................................................78 TheTechnicalAdviser:..............................................................................................................................................78 TheSurveillanceandTreatmentTeams:...........................................................................................................78 AreaFreedom/PestFreedom.............................................................................................................................................................78 References................................................................................................................................................................................80 Appendices...............................................................................................................................................................................83 ListofStandardOperatingProcedures..........................................................................................................................................83 P a g e 3 | 84 Section1.IntroductionandBackground Foreword The Maunakea Invasive Species Management Plan documents the objectives, policies and proceduresoftheOfficeofMaunaKeaManagementfortheprevention,detectionandmanagement ofinvasiveplantandanimalspeciesonlandsmanagedbytheUniversityofHawai‘ionMaunakea. ThedevelopmentandimplementationofthisplansupportstheOfficeofMaunaKeaManagement missiontoachieveharmony,balance,andtrustinthesustainablemanagementandstewardshipof UHmanagedlands(MaunaKeaScienceReserveandHalepōhaku)throughcommunityinvolvement andprogramsthatprotect,preserve,andenhancethenatural,cultural,andrecreationalresources of Maunakea while providing a world class center dedicated to education, research and astronomy(1). Thisdocumenthasbeendevelopedwiththefollowingguidingprinciples: 1. The high elevation areas of Maunakea are unique in the world, and the evolutionary processes,biodiversityandbeautyofthisareashouldbepreservedinperpetuity, 2. There are no firm boundaries between the natural, cultural, recreational, or scientific resourcesofMaunakeaandthatallmaybenegativelyimpactedbyinvasivespecies, 3. Preventionandearlydetectionisthemosteffectivedefenseagainsttheentryandspreadof invasivespecies, 4. Planning and implementation of invasive species prevention and control programs are improved by input from, and participation by, the broader community and should incorporatetheprinciplesofadaptivemanagement, 5. Managementactionsshouldbeselectedaftercarefulculturalandscientificconsiderationof the risks and benefits of those actions against the survival and evolution in perpetuity, of theuniquegeology,flora,faunaandculturalvaluesofMaunakea,atspecies,ecosystemand landscapescales, 6. All organisms are potential invasive species. The emphasis of this plan is on plants, invertebrates, and small mammals. Management of wildlife, such as game mammals and birds, are addressed in keeping with State of Hawai‘i Department of Land and Natural Resources policies for Maunakea. These policies may conflict with those outlined in this plan. Background TheMaunaKeaScienceReserveandHalepōhakuare11,288‐acreand19‐acre(respectively)areas oflandleasedbytheUniversityofHawai‘ifromtheStateofHawai‘iforuseasascientificcomplex. Inaddition,theUniversityhasaneasementforaccessbetweenthesetwoareas,referredtoasthe Summit Access Road Corridor. Management is guided by the 2009 Mauna Kea Comprehensive P a g e 4 | 84 ManagementPlan(2)whichprovidesthepolicyframeworkfortheresponsiblestewardshipanduse ofUniversity‐managedlandsonMaunakeathroughto2020.TheComprehensiveManagementPlan addresses the overall management of cultural, natural, research and recreational values of the precinct. It recognizes the threat posed by invasive species and mandates the development of an “invasivespeciespreventionandcontrolprogram”(p7‐15,ManagementActionNR2). ThemanagementpoliciesforthenaturalvaluesoftheMaunaKeaScienceReserveareoutlinedin the Mauna Kea Natural Resources Management Plan(3) which forms a sub plan of the ComprehensiveManagementPlan.Thisplanrecognizesthethreatandpotentialimpactthatnon‐ nativeplants,animalsanddiseasescanhaveontheuniqueanddelicateecosystemsofMaunakea.It recommends the development of an invasive species management plan as a component of the “ThreatPreventionandControl”strategy. The five objectives listed in the Natural Resources Management Plan related to invasive species managementare: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. PreventtheintroductionofnewinvasivespeciesintotheMaunaKeaScienceReserve, Developanearlydetectionplanforinvasivespecieswithinthemanagementarea, Monitorestablishedinvasivespeciespopulationanddistribution, Developarapidresponseprogramforincipientinvasivespecies,and Controlestablishedinvasivespeciesinsensitiveareas. This invasive species management plan also fulfills some of the requirements of the Hawai‘i AdministrativeRules(HAR)andotherstatuteswhicheitherrequireorencourageconsiderationof invasivespeciesconcernswithotherprograms: 1. HAR13‐5‐22–IdentifiedLandUsesintheProtectiveSubzone,P‐4RemovalofInvasiveSpecies. (While the University managed lands on Maunakea are in the resource subzone, all identified land uses and their associated permit or site plan approval requirements listed for the protectiveandlimitedsubzonesalsoapplytotheresourcesubzone,unlessotherwisenoted.), 2. StateHistoricPreservation–invasivespeciesmanagementactivitiesaredesignedtominimize impactstohistoricresources,bothbyinvasivespeciesthemselvesandfromcontrolefforts,and 3. Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) requirements apply to any animal activities (IACUCs are a self‐regulating entities that, according to U.S. federal law, must be establishedbyinstitutionsthatuselaboratoryanimalsforresearchorinstructionalpurposesto overseeandevaluateallaspectsoftheinstitution'sanimalcareanduseprogram. Organization ThisplanformsacomponentplanoftheNaturalResourcesManagementPlan(3).Itshouldberead withinthecontextofthisplan,andtheparentComprehensiveManagementPlan(2).Unlessdeemed necessary for clarity, information already found within either parent plan shall not be duplicated here.Thisdocumentispresentedintwomajorparts: P a g e 5 | 84 1. The invasive species plan, containing the Office of Mauna Kea Management policies and generalproceduresastheyapplytoinvasivespecies.AslandzonedConservation,Resource subzone – affecting an area greater than one acre – this portion of the plan requires site plan approval by the State of Hawai‘i, Department of Land & Natural Resources (Hawai‘i AdministrativeRules,Chapter13‐5,August2011),and 2. A series of appendices describing specific standards, activities and standard operating procedures required to fulfill the Office of Mauna Kea Management invasive species plan. These may alter from time to time as new methodologies are developed through the adaptivemanagementprocess.TheOfficeofMaunaKeaManagementproposesthatthese changesbeendorsedbytheMaunaKeaManagementBoardandthensubmittedtotheState of Hawai‘i, Office of Conservation & Coastal Lands (OCCL) for review and approval before formaladoption. Education and outreach, addressing guiding principles such as obtaining input from, and participation by, the broader community (outside of cultural, recreation, and scientific users of Maunakea) is not directly addressed here. The Office of Mauna Kea Management anticipates preparingaprogrammaticdocumentinthefuturewhichwillincludeinvasivespeciesconcernsasa communitycommunicationconcern.Abroadinvasivespeciesoutreachstrategythatengagesthe immediatecultural,recreation,andscientificusersofMaunakeaisappended. Asapolicydocument,itislikelytobereadbypeoplefroma varietyofbackgrounds.Inorderto improve clarity for all readers, referencing and the use of scientific terms have been kept to a minimum. GeographyoftheManagementArea For the purposes of this plan, the management area will be divided into five management zones, determinedbythedegreeofriskeachareaposestotheentryofinvasivespeciesandthelevelof earlydetectionorresponseactivitiesrequired.Thesemanagementzonesare:1)theHalepōhaku Visitor Information Station, 2) the road corridor to the summit, 3) the Astronomy Precinct, 4) Science Reserve, and 5) the Mauna Kea Ice Age Natural Area Reserve (NAR, managed by the DivisionofForestry&Wildlife).TheseareoutlinedintheFiguresbelow. P a g e 6 | 84 Figure1.1.MapoftheislandofHawai‘ishowinglocationofthe MaunakeaManagementarea. Figure 1.2: Aerial view of the Mauna Kea Science Reserve. P a g e 7 | 84 HALEPŌHAKU Situatedat9,200ft.elevation,themid‐levelfacilitiesatHalepōhaku(TMK(3)4‐4‐15:12)comprise 19.3adjacenttotheSummitAccessRoad.Theentireparcelwillbereferredtoas“Halepōhaku”in this document. The facilities include dormitories, a commons building, a construction camp, maintenancefacility,andtheVisitorInformationStation(VIS).BothHalepōhakuandtheVISserve asareststopforstaffandvisitors,respectively,toacclimatebeforeprogressingtothesummit.The VISoffersagiftshop,restrooms,andstargazingtoover500visitorsperday,365nightsperyear. ROAD CORRIDOR TheRoadManagementCorridorasshowninFigure1.2extendsfromthetopoftheHPparceltothe bottomoftheScienceReserve.WhiletheactualSummitAccessRoadextendsfromthebottomof theHPparcel8.3milestotheMaunakeaSummit,thelower4.6milesofwhichareunpaved.A400‐ yardwideeasementoneithersideoftheroadisdescribedinthe1995ManagementPlan,excluding portions inside the NAR. Acreage includes approximately 45‐acres of road bed and 700‐acres of easement. ASTRONOMY PRECINCT The525‐acreAstronomyPrecinct,situatedatthesummit,wasdesignatedfortheconsolidationof astronomy facilities and support infrastructure in the University’s 2000 Master Plan. All but one existingobservatory(theVLBA)arefoundwithinitsborders,includingthesitesdesignatedforthe proposed Thirty‐Meter Telescope(4). The area is second only to Halepōhaku in human activity, whichincludescommercialtours,hiking,sightseeing,culturalexpression,research,andsnowplay. MAUNA KEA SCIENCE RESERVE ThelargestportionoftheUHManagedLandsistheMaunaKeaScienceReserve(MKSR)(TMK:(3) 4‐4‐15:09).ThelandisleasedfromtheDepartmentofLandandNaturalResource(DLNR)bythe University of Hawai‘i (UH). In its current form, the MKSR encompasses 11,288‐acre of state land aboveapproximately11,500ftelevationdesignatedasascientificcomplex.AllMKSRlandsoutside ofthe525‐acreAstronomyPrecinctaresetasideasaNaturalandCulturalPreservationArea. TheSummitAccessRoadistheonlymaintainedroadintothearea,sothataccessingmuchofthe MKSRrequiresanarduoushikeacrossthestonedesert.HikingtimefromtheAstronomyPrecinct totheouteredgesoftheScienceReserveisapproximatelyfourhours.Twounpavedhuntingroads, shownasSkylineDriveandMaunakeaHuntersRoad(R‐1)onstatehuntingmapsprovideaccessto theouterboundaryofmuchoftheMKSR,whichisalsoastatehuntingarea.Traveltimetoremote areasviafourwheeldrivevehicleisnotmuchimprovedoverhikingfromtheSummit. Cultural resources in the MKSR include at least 263 historic properties and several pu‘u (cinder cones)whicharedesignatedTraditionalCulturalProperties,includingKūkahau‘ula,thecindercone clusterthatcomprisesthesummit(2). P a g e 8 | 84 NATURAL AREA RESERVE (NAR) The3,894‐acreMaunaKeaIceAgeNaturalAreaReserve(NAR)ismanagedbytheHawai‘iDivision ofForestry andWildlife,NaturalAreaReserveCommission.TheNARwasestablishedin1981to protectanexemplaryportionofinvertebrate‐dominatedaeoliandesertandthestate’sonlyalpine lake,LakeWai‘au.Priortoitsestablishment,theNARhadbeenpartoftheMKSR.Theboundary follows the west side of the Summit Access Road, creating a large wedge, extending from approximately10,000ftto13,441ft,justbelowthesummit.Asecond143.5‐acresquareparcelis separatelylocatedaroundPu‘upōhaku,whichalsoholdsanephemeralwatersource. The Natural Area Reserves represent the highest level of habitat protection in the state land managementsystem.HumanactivityintheNARisrestrictedtohikingandobservationofnature, permitted research, and staff management activities, which include monitoring and ungulate control. Under a 2008 cooperative agreement between OMKM and the Natural Area Reserves System(DLNR),OMKMprovidesvisitorassistanceusingOMKMrangers,engagesinjointresearch andeducationalefforts,andreportsviolationsoccurringintheNAR. LakeWai‘auanditsaccesstrail(Maunakea‐Humu‘ulaTrail)areofparticularconcernforinvasive species establishment, due to both high levels of visitation and the constant water source. Introducedcommondandelion(Taraxicumofficinale)andtwoinvasivecarabidbeetle(Agonumc.f. muelleriandTrechusobtusus)areestablishednearthelake.ManagementofweedsalongSummit Access Road requires coordination with the NAR, as OMKM jurisdiction ends at the road edge adjacenttotheNARandmuchofthepowerlineeasementforMaunakeaextendsthroughtheNAR. TheactionsspecifiedinthisplanthatoccurintheNAR,requireOMKMtoobtainNARpermitsand areotherwiseconductedonlywiththeexplicitapprovalofNARmanagement. P a g e 9 | 84 PoliciesforManagementofInvasiveSpeciesonMaunakea The areas covered by this management plan include the Mauna Kea Science Reserve, Halepōhaku,theAstronomyprecinct,theNARandtheSummitAccessRoadCorridorandshall bereferredtointhisdocumentcollectivelyasthe“ManagementArea”.Managementofinvasive specieswithinthisarea(whetherestablishedorpotentialthreats),willbeaccomplishedusinga riskmanagementapproach.Riskmanagementapproachesrecognizethattheprobabilityofan unwantedeventoccurringisdifficulttoquantifyandrarely possibleto preventabsolutely. A riskmanagementapproachattemptstobalancetherelativeseverityofaparticularriskwiththe degree of effort needed to reduce the probability of its occurrence to a desired or predeterminedlevel.Onepreceptofthisapproachisthatreductionofaparticularrisktozero is not usually possible or practical. Further, the process should be transparent and inclusive, based on the best available data, open to change as new information becomes available and guidedbytheprincipleofcontinuousimprovement. Therearefivelogicalstepsintheriskmanagementprocess: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Identifypotentialthreats, Assesstheimpactsofthesethreats, Determinetherelativeprobabilityofoccurrence, Identifymanagementoptionsthatreducethesethreats,and Prioritize management options based on return for effort and predetermined risk thresh‐ holds. P a g e 10 | 84 Section2.Prevention The keystone of this invasive species management plan is a strategy that prevents entry of new invasive species to the Management Area. Investment in prevention activities offers the greatest returnforeffortandshouldthereforetakeahighpriority. PotentialInvasiveSpecies:ThreatsandImpacts PLANTS Plants include grasses, herbs, vines, trees, fungi and legumes. Invasive plants can be spread via natural dispersal such as seeds caught in ungulate coats, carried on the wind, or through water erosion.However,theriskofaccidentalintroductionisgreaterwhenvectoredbypeopletraveling to and from the Management Area on foot or in vehicles, buses, or via earthmoving equipment. Invasiveplantstendtothriveinnewlocationsduetoalackoftheinsects,diseases,andpredators thatusuallycontrolthespeciesinitsnativehabitat (5).Withoutthesenaturalinhibitors,theplants areabletospreadaggressively.Spreadisfacilitatedbyahighrateofseedproduction,rapidgrowth to maturity, tolerance of different soil types and climate. Invasive plant species can create environment‐altering impacts such as fire regime shifts, shade manipulation, lowering of the groundwater table and overcrowding. When invasive species become established, the entire ecosystemcanpotentiallychangeasnativeplantspeciesdecline.Withoutnativeplantspecies,the native fauna that rely on these plants for food, shelter and hosts of prey items may be unable to survive. Traitsofinvasiveplants Invasiveplantspeciestendtohavenonaturalenemiesthatregulatethemintheirnewenvironment when compared with native plant species that are balanced by native viruses, insects, and/or herbivores.Withoutthesechecksandbalances,invasivespeciesoftenthriveinnewenvironments tothedetrimentofthenativespeciesalreadypresent(6). Invasive plants often have short life cycles, which allows them to mature and reproduce more quickly than their native counterparts. This trait allows them to outnumber native plants in seed production,thusensuringacompetitiveadvantage.Invasiveplantspeciesalsoproducefoliageand stay actively growing for longer periods. This allows for higher photosynthetic rates for longer periodsoftime,which,inturn,contributestoearliermaturityandseedproduction. Many invasive plant species have a greater production rate of seeds which allows newly invasive plantstoestablishquicklywithnumerousoffspringdispersedacrosslargeareas.Spreadisaidedby effective seed dispersal methods. Some species reproduce by vegetative means, and disperse by underground stems and cuttings that provide more opportunities for the plant to spread and multiply.Invasivespeciestendtoevadegrazing,oftenduetoalackofpalatabilitytoherbivores, while native species continue to be consumed yielding more room for the spread of introduced plants.Someinvasiveplantspeciesareallelopathic,releasingchemicalsintothesoilthatsuppress growthofotherplants(7).Theycanalsoproducemoreshade thancompetingnativeplants,which P a g e 11 | 84 allows them to absorb sunlight more efficiently compared with native species in the understory. Finally,invasiveplantstendtohavelongseeddormancyandstaggeredgerminationthatgivethese species greater flexibility in germination and seasonality. These traits all contribute to the rapid spreadofmanyinvasiveplantspecies. Without a natural checks and balances system for invasive plant species, these plants have more energytheycanuseforgrowthandreproductionthatwouldhaveotherwisebeenusedtofightoff diseasesorhealfromherbivores.Therefore,deeprootsystemscanbedevelopedrelativelyrapidly and early, which allows for a larger amount of water uptake from the soil. Not only does this provide the plant with more resources for energy production, but it also allows the plant to outcompeteothernativestryingtosurvive.Theseinvasiveplantsproducedenserootmassesthat preventothernativerootestablishmentwhileproducingahighcapacityforcarbohydratestorage intheroots.Thesedenserootmatsmakecontroleffortsdifficultastheirremovalcanbephysically difficultandleavetheareawithhighlyerodibleloosesoils. TargetSpecies Theentryorestablishmentofanynewplantspecieswithinthe ManagementAreaisundesirable. For prevention purposes, it is often difficult to identify potential propagative material (seeds, cuttings, seedlings etc.) at points of entry. Therefore, the most effective approach is to apply the “precautionaryprinciple”totheentryofplantpropagativematerialandassumeallseeds,cuttings, seedlingetc.aretobeexcludedfromtheManagementArea. VERTEBRATES SeveralvertebrategroupsarepotentiallyinvasivewithintheMaunakeaManagementArea,andare describedbelow. Cats. Aferalcatisadomesticatedcatthathasreturnedtothewild,orthedescendantsofsuchananimal. Itisdistinguishedfromastraycat,whichisapetcatthathasbeenlostorabandoned,whileferal catsareborninthewild.Theoffspringofastraycatcanbeconsideredferalifborninthewild.For thepurposesofthisplan,thereisnodistinctionbetweenferalandstraycatsastheirimpactswill beidentical.Catsintroducedintoareasinwhichtheyarenotindigenousoftencauseharmtolocal environmentsbypreyingonlocalspecies.Thisisparticularlytrueonislands,whereferalcatshave sometimes had a substantial and deleterious effect on the local fauna, especially birds. With the paucityofgameanimalsandnativebirdswithintheManagementArea,anycatspresentthereare likely to turn to smaller prey such as invertebrates. Currently, cats are sparse at ~9,200 ft and above.Theyareoccasionallyobserved,mostcommonlyinlatespringwithgreen‐up. Mongoose. ThesmallAsianmongoose(Herpestesjavanicus)isaweasel‐likeanimalwithatotalbodylengthof approximately2feet.ItwasintroducedtoHawai‘iIslandinthelate1800’sbysugarfarmersinan attempttocontrolrodentsincaneplantations.Sincethattime,they have hasspreadthroughout P a g e 12 | 84 theisland,becomingapredatorofbirdsanddecimatingnativebirdpopulations (8).Theyarevery rarelyobservedathighelevationsandvirtuallyabsentabove10,000ft. Rabbits. The common domestic rabbit (Oryctolagus cuniculus) is rarely seen on Hawai‘i Island, although occasionallyreportedonlandadjacenttotheManagementArea.Whilerabbitscanbeadevastating pestinsomelocations,theyareunlikelytosurvivewithintheMaunakeaManagementArea. Mice and Rats. Commensal rodents such as mice and rats are ubiquitous worldwide, often living in association withhumans.IntheMaunakeaManagementArea,theyaremostcommonlyassociatedwithfood preparationandhandlingareasatHalepōhakuandtheAstronomyPrecinct. Dogs. No established groups of wild or feral dogs have been observed in the Management Area. Occasionallyhuntingdogsbecomeisolatedfromtheirhandlers.Theseareusuallyreturnedtotheir owners. Reptiles, frogs and amphibians. Theclimate withinthe Maunakea Management Areaisnotsuitedtothe survivalofthesespecies. Otherthantheoccasionalcoquifrogsighting(whichrapidlydessicatesanddies),noreportsoftheir presenceareknown. Birds. There are several invasive bird species on Hawai‘i Island. The most serious are the Indian or commonmyna(Acridotherestristis).ThisspecieswasintroducedtoHawai‘iIslandin1875andit quicklyspreadtooccupymostlow‐elevationhabitats.Indianmynasarenotfoundabove7,500ft elevationandarethereforeunlikelytoestablishwithintheManagementArea.TheJapanesewhite‐ eye (Zosterops japonicus) is found within the Management Area however, and studies in the HakalauForestNationalRefuge,haveshownthatthepresenceofthisspeciesinHawaiiansongbird ecosystemsstuntsthegrowthofnativebirdspecies(9). Feral Ungulates. Ungulate (hooved) animals include pigs, donkeys, sheep and deer. The association of introduced feralungulateswiththespreadofinvasivespeciesanddestructionofnativefloraonoceanicislands iswelldocumentedinHawai‘iandelsewhere.Ungulatesgrazeongrassesandwoodyplants.The soildisturbancecausedbyhoovesleadstosoilerosionandfacilitatestheestablishmentofinvasive plants. This management plan does not address management of feral ungulates within the ManagementAreaasmanagementactivitiesareconductedbyanotheragencyandfirearms,rifles, bows, and arrows are prohibited in the Halepōhaku area as part of the Conservation District Use Permit(HA‐1430)forthesite.However,TheOfficeofMaunakeaManagementactivelysupportsthe DLNRdecisiontocompletetheMaunakeaPalilacriticalhabitatfenceinthenearfuture(2015)and toremoveallferalungulatesfromthesummitareapromptly. P a g e 13 | 84 INVERTEBRATES TwoinvertebrategroupsarepotentiallyinvasiveintheMaunakeaManagementArea.Mollusksand arthropodsaredescribedbelow. Mollusks Terrestrial mollusks, include land snails and slugs, as there is no surface water on UH Managed Lands aquatic mollusks are not considered in this plan. Surface waters of Lake Wai‘au and Pu‘upōhaku are the responsibility of the Mauna Kea Ice Age Natural Area Reserve and any observations of aquatic mollusks will be reported to the appropriate management agency. There arenorecordsofnon‐nativesnailsintheManagementArea,althoughnativepartulidandsuccinea snails are present in the Halepōhaku area. Any observations of terrestrial mollusks such as the giant African snail (Achatina fulica) shall be reported and responded to in the same manner as observationsofinvasivearthropods. Arthropods Arthropodsincludeinsects,spidersandrelatedanimals.Terrestrialarthropodsareusuallysmall and often cryptic. Many species can easily travel from location to location when associated with humancommerceandmovement.Althoughanynewarthropodwouldbeanunwelcomeaddition totheecosystemsinMaunakea,invasiveantsposeoneofthemostseriousrisks. Mostarthropodsaresolitarycreatures,onlycomingintomeaningfulcontactwitheachotherduring matingevents.Thereforeinordertoestablishinanewlocation,bothamaleandfemalemustbe presentandtheymustfindeachotherinordertomate.Ants,however,aresocialinsectshaving oneormorequeensandmanysterilefemaleworkerspercolony(10).Thequeenusuallyonlymates onceinherreproductivelife,andfromthattimeonwardshastheabilitytoproducenewoffspring: workers,newqueensandmales.Therefore,acolonyorevenacolonyfragmentwithasinglequeen, has everything needed to produce new colonies and maintain the original one if moved to a new location. Antstendtobesmall,andantcoloniesareusuallywell‐hidden.Forbiosecuritypurposestheyform anidealfocusgroupforpreventionstrategies(11).Itishighlylikelythatabiosecurityprogramthat isabletosuccessfullyexcludeinvasiveantswillalsoexcludemostothercrawlingarthropods.For this reason, we propose to develop the arthropod component of the Maunakea invasive species (prevention)programaroundtheexclusionofinvasiveants. TRAITS OF INVASIVE ANTS Of the 15,000 or so ant species known to science, only a small fraction are invasive (12). These speciesshareagroupofbehavioraladaptationsthatpre‐disposethemtosuccessfulrelocationand establishment(13). Polygeny, Polydomyandunicoloniality, Highinter‐specificaggression, Relocationviahumancommerce, P a g e 14 | 84 Formationofmutualisticrelationships. Polygyny Antsaretypicallymonogynous.Amonogynouscolonyconsistsofasinglequeenattendedbymany worker ants. The queen is the only reproductive ant and the workers are her daughters ‐ sterile females.Attimesthroughtheyear,newqueensareproducedalongwithmales.Theseflyfromthe nest at pre‐determined times, mate in flight, and the newly mated queens land to form new colonies.Workersdonottoleratemorethanonequeenpercolony.Shouldtwoormorequeensbe present,theworkerantswillassassinatetheweakerqueens. Manyinvasiveantspeciesarepolygynous.Coloniesofthesespeciescancontainmanyqueens,and workersdonotappeartodistinguishbetweenthemorattempttoassassinatesurplusqueens.This feature gives colonies two competitive advantages. First, the founding phase of a new colony carries a high risk of failure. A newly mated queen needs to lay an initial clutch of eggs, care for themuntilthelarvaereachadulthood,beforefocusingexclusivelyonegg‐laying.Newqueensoften suffer from predation or fail to raise sufficient workers to form a colony. For many invasive ant species, newly mated queens simply re‐enter the parental colony, or move a short distance with existing workers to found a new colony. The probability of successful colony founding is much greater.Asaresult,mostinvasiveantspeciesnolongerneedtotakepartinnuptialflights,instead matingwithinthenest. Thesecondadvantageofpolygynyisthatthetaskofegglayingisnowsharedbetweenanumberof queens. This bestows a degree of redundancy for colony survival. In single queen colonies, the deathofthequeenheraldstheendofthecolony.Withoutnewworkers,thecolonywilldeclineand die.However,inmultiplequeencolonies,thedeathofoneormorequeenshasnolastingeffecton egg production. Remaining queens simply increase their rate of egg laying to compensate. This feature makes control of these species especially problematic. Many control methods focus on killing the queen for success. When many queens are present, this task becomes much more difficult. Polydomy and Unicoloniality Ant colonies, even from the same species, are highly competitive and expend great resources to defend their territory and resources. Large amounts of energy may be expended in this activity. Theimportanceofthisbattleforsurvivalandterritoryshouldnotbeunder‐estimated.Almostall invasiveantssharethetraitsofpolydomyandunicolonialitywhichdramaticallyreducesthecosts ofsurvival. Coloniesofthesamespeciesofinvasiveants,however,donotcompetewitheachother.Theywork cooperatively, share food, workers, brood and queens. In this way they form a network of connectedcoloniesthattogetherexcludeallotherantspecies.Territorialdefenseisonlyneededat the outer edges rather than around each individual colony. This network of interconnected coloniesisoftencalleda“super‐colony”.Resourcesnolongerneedtobedefended,andtheenergy previously used for defense is re‐allocated to colony expansion. This aspect of invasive ant behavioriskeytoitsinvasiveability. P a g e 15 | 84 Inter‐Specific Aggression Coupled with the within‐species cooperation is an aggressive defense of the entire super‐colony. Any ants from another species that happens to be within the supercolony is overcome by sheer weightofnumbers,anditisraretofindanyotherantspecieswithinareaswhereaninvasiveant specieshasbecomeestablished. Dispersal Ability Most ant species disperse after mating; newly mated winged queens fly to other locations and establishnewcolonies.Incontrast,mostinvasiveantspeciesdonotdispersebyflight.Invasive antsonlyneedasmallcolonyofafewworkersandonereproductivequeentobeabletoestablish at a new location. Often, a complete colony is able to fit comfortably into an area smaller than a match‐box. Increasing rates and volumes of human commerce provide the vector needed for invasiveantstomovefromlocationtolocationwithlittleeffort.Thisfeatureallowsthemtospread overlongdistanceswithlittleeffort,orshorterdistancesthroughthemovementofitemssuchas pottedplants,produceorotherriskitems. Mutualisms Anothervitalkeytothesuccessofinvasiveantsistheirabilitytocaptureandredirectsourcesof energy to themselves. One very important method these species utilize is via the formation of mutualisticrelationshipswithhomoptera(scales,mealybugsandotherplantpests).Invasiveants “farm”theseanimals,protectthemfromnaturalpredatorsandconsumethesugaryexudatesthese creatures produce. The additional energy this provides the colony is the fuel needed for further expansionandecologicaldominanceandonereasonfortheirabilitytoformpopulationsfarmore numerous than the ants they displace. Without access to these additional resources, population densitieswouldbemuchlower. Target Ant Species ArgentineAnts The scientific name for the Argentine ant is Linepithema humile. Until recently it was known as Iridomyrmexhumilis.WorldwideitisknownastheArgentineant.Asitsnamesuggests,thisspecies was originally from South America with its native range centered on the Paraná river catchment which spans Brazil, Paraguay and Argentina. Argentine ants have been widely distributed by human commerce during the early part of the 20th century and are now found worldwide, including Europe, USA, South America, Australia, Africa and Asia as well as many islands in the Pacific. It is a common species on all the islands of Hawai‘i and is usually found at mid‐high elevations,includingsub‐alpineportionsofHaleakalāNationalPark(~9,700ft).Sitesclosesttothe Maunakea Management Area include: along the Saddle Road (including the Pu‘uhuluhulu parking lot),Keanakolu‐ManaRoad,andinPōhakuloaTrainingArea.Atlowerelevations,itisout‐competed by big‐headed ants (Pheidole megacephala). This species prefers a Mediterranean climate with warmdrysummersandcoolwetwinters.However,intheabsenceofcompetitionfromotherant species, it can establish and thrive in warmer and cooler climates. Argentine ants are a serious ecologicalpest,disruptingnativeecosystems andisalsoastructuralpest–ofteninvadinghomes andurbanbuildings. P a g e 16 | 84 LittleFireAnts ThescientificnameforthisspeciesisWasmanniaauropunctata.Aroundtheworlditisalsoknown as the “cocoa tree ant” and the “electric ant”. Little fire ants (LFA) are originally from South America,eastoftheAndes.Ithasbeenspreadingthroughoutthetropicsandsub‐tropicsforover 100 years(14). USA (Florida), Caribbean islands, west Africa, Israel, Papua New Guinea, Solomon Islands,NewCaledonia,FrenchPolynesia,Hawai‘i(BigIslandandKaua‘i),Australia,Galapagos,and Guam. On the island of Hawai‘i, it is common and widespread from Kalapana to Laupāhoehoe up to an elevationof2,000ftandmoresparselydistributedalongthewestcoastbetweenKailua‐Konaand Na‘alehu.SmallpopulationshavebeenfoundonMaui,Kaua‘iandO‘ahu.Theyprefersitesthatare shaded,warmandmoist,andgenerallyavoidfullsunlight.Theassociationbetweenlittlefireants andhomopteranplantpestscancausedamagetothehostplantsandreduceproductivityoffruiting treesandreducedgrowthofornamentalplants.Additionally,LittleFireAntshaveapainfulsting, andinfestedsitesoftenhavemanymillionsoftheseantsperacre.Antsforagingonvegetationoften falltothegroundandonpeopleorpets.Itiscommonforpeopleininfestedareastosufferrepeated stingsontheneck,shouldersandtorso. White‐FootedAnts The scientific name for the white footed ant is Technomyrmex dificilis. This ant was previously identifiedasTechnomyrmexalbipesuntil2007.Itisalsoknownasthe“blackhouse”antaroundthe world. Native to Southeast Asia, white footed ants have spread throughout the world mainly through the transport of cargo and other commodities. USA (Florida, South Carolina, Georgia, Louisiana, Hawai‘i), Antigua, Nevis, Puerto Rico, St. Croix and St. Thomas. In Hawai‘i WFA is currentlyknownfromMaui,O‘ahuandKaho‘olawe.ThisspeciesisapartofgroupofTechnomyrmex speciesthatlookalmostidenticaltooneanother,soitisprobablethisspeciesmaybeestablished onotherHawaiianIslands.Whitefootedantswillnestinalmostanylocationinsideandoutsideof thehouseincludingunderroofs,cardboardboxes,compostpiles,pottedplants,outdoorfurniture, etc… but trees seem to be ideal. Colony sizes can range from 400,000 to 3 million individuals. Because of the enormous size of the colonies, large amounts of food are essential to sustain the populations.WFAwillfeedonawidevarietyoffoodsourcesincludingsugarysubstances,trophic eggs laid by worker ants and dead insects. White footed ants do not bite or sting. They are considered a pest primarily due to their high population densities and are also known to tend homopertan plant pests such as scale insects, aphids and mealy bugs and feeding on the sweet sugary honeydew produced by these insects. It has been documented that this association has contributedtothespreadofseveralseriousplantdiseasesaroundtheworld. SingaporeAnts ThescientificnamefortheSingaporeantisMonomoriumdestructor.Itisalsocommonlyknownas the “destructive trailing ant” and “mizo‐hime‐ari” (Japan) around the world. Singapore ants are native to India, Japan, Malaysia and Sri Lanka and have spread to Australasia‐Pacific, North America,SouthAmerica,Africa,Laysan,FrenchFrigateShoals,andHawai‘i.Theyareeasilyspread throughcommerceandtrade.InHawai‘iitiscurrentlyknowntobeestablishedonHawai‘i,Kaua‘i andO‘ahu.SingaporeAntsaremoreofapestinurbanenvironmentsandasahousepest.Although P a g e 17 | 84 they will forage on sugars and proteins the biggest problem is the destruction of electrical and phone lines. Foragers gnaw holes in fabric and rubber goods, remove rubber insulation from electric and phone lines, and damage polyethylene cable. They can destroy or damage electrical linesinhousesandcarswhichcanleadtoelectricalfires. Big‐HeadedAnts ThescientificnameforthebigheadedantisPheidolemegacephala.Itisalsoknownasthe“brown house‐ant”, “coastal brown‐ant”, “lion ant”, and “grosskopfameise” (German) in other parts of the world. The big headed ant is believed to be native to southern Africa. It is widely distributed throughoutthetemperatesub‐tropicalandtropicalregionsoftheworld.Bigheadedantsgettheir name from the “major caste” of worker ants (often called soldiers) which have extremely large heads compared to the rest of their bodies. The smaller “minor caste” (small foraging ants) will forageonalmostanythingfromsweetsugaryliquids,deadinsects,andplantseeds.Theybringthe foodbacktothenestwhereitissharedthroughoutthecolony. In rural areas, BHA are known to displace much of the native fauna through aggression and competition. They can directly impact crops through seed harvesting and indirectly by harboring plantsuckinginsects.BHAhavealsobeenknowntochewthroughirrigationlines.Theyareamajor pest of pineapples where they tend pineapple mealy‐bug. In urban/residential areas they often causeconsiderabledamagetotelephoneandelectricalinstallationsinhomesandbuildings. PennantAnts The scientific name for the pennant ant is Tetramorium bicarinatum. It is also known as the “bicoloredpennantant”,“Guineaant”,or“pennyAnt”.ThenameGuineaantisalsocommonlyused for a close relative Tetramorium guineense. The genus Tetramorium contains several species knownfordispersalviahumancommerce.ThepennantantisnativetotheIndo‐Pacificregionof theworld.Thisisacosmopolitanspeciescommonlyfoundaroundtheworldandisoneofthemost widespread species of ants globally. In Hawai‘i it is most likely established on all of the major islands. Colonies of pennant ants are usually small to moderate in size and occur in urban environments, yards, gardens, green/shade houses. Nests can have multiple queens and workers can vary in color and size. Although they are not considered to be a major pest, they can be a nuisancearoundthehomeandgardenbecauseoftheirabilitytostingifprovoked. PotentialThreatPathways Abiosecurity“pathway”isdefinedasamechanismbywhichanexoticorganismcantraveltoanew location,oftenasahitchhiker.Forarthropodsandplants,thesepathwayshavebeen categorized intologicalgroupsandfurtherdividedaccordingtothelevelofcontrolorregulationcurrentlyin force. These groups are: vehicles, commodities, and people (with associated personal items they maycarry).Atotalof28differentpathwayshavebeenidentified. Almost all inward movement of goods and people is via the road link which terminates at the AstronomyPrecinct.Arthropodsandplantseedsarepotentiallyabletohitcharideonthemeansof P a g e 18 | 84 transportation, the containers housing goods and other commodities, the goods or commodities themselves,orassociatedwithstafforvisitors.Eachpathwayrepresentsadifferentriskofbeing thevectorforintroductionsofexoticspecies. Therearealsonon‐anthropogenicpathwaysincludingorganismscarriedbywind,rain,fireorother naturalevents.Thesehavenotbeenconsideredinthissectionoftheriskassessment. VEHICLES AND VESSELS Vehiclesof alldescriptionscanharbormanyinvasivepestspecies.Soil andotherorganic matter canaccumulateincracks,crevicesandonunder‐bodies.VehiclesthattraveltoMaunakeaoriginate fromresidentialandurbanareasontheislandofHawai‘i.Theselocationsharborwell‐established populations of weedy, invasive arthropods and plants. Arthropods could infest a vehicle parked over‐nightandnestinthevoidsandotherinternalspaces,orinsoilandotherorganicmatterthat accumulate in cracks, crevices and on under‐bodies. Plant seeds can also be deposited on truck beds,undercarriagesorwithinavehicle.Thesethenfallofforleavewhenthevehicleisparkedat anotherlocation.Largervehiclesandthoseusedforoff‐roadpurposesusuallyhavemoresoiland othermatterattachedtotheunderbodiesandthereforepresentagreaterrisk.Passengervehicles such as those used by staff and visitors are generally cleaner, as they tend to stay on County and Stateroads. GOODS AND OTHER COMMODITIES The movement of items to Maunakea (goods, commodities, supplies, equipment and construction activities) provide opportunities for arthropods and invasive plants to become established. The risks and species associated with the movement of goods are more diverse because some goods originate in other parts of the USA as well as internationally. Arthropods can hide in the goods themselves, the packaging associated with the commodities or within the containers used to transportthem.Plantseeds,someverysmall,canbeincorporatedwithpackagingormovedbythe windtosettleoncommodities(especiallythosestoredoutdoors).Larger,orheavier,commodities typicallyhavegreaterareasforspeciestosettleanditcanbemoredifficulttodetectcontamination. Thelevelofriskforthispathwayisinfluencedbystorageconditionspriortoarrival,thecleanliness ofitems,andtheintrinsicpropertiesofitemsasharborsforarthropodsorplantseeds. PEOPLE People can inadvertently carry arthropods and seeds in their clothing or immediate possessions. Itemsespeciallyhigh‐riskwouldincludepacks,tents,camping equipment,shoes,and otheritems thatmayhavebeenincontactwithsoilorstoredinareaswhereantsandotherarthropodswere abletomoveintothempriortotransport. RegulatedPathways Manyofthevehicles,peopleandgoodsenteringtheMaunakeaarearequiresomeformofpermitin ordertogainaccess.Riskreductionstrategiescanbemoreeasilydevelopedandenforcedwithin P a g e 19 | 84 the permit system so therefore their actual risk level and mitigation options differ from those categorieswhereapermittingsystemisabsent. VEHICLES AND VESSELS Nine categories of vehicles have been identified, classified according to the type of cargo they usuallycarry: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. regularstaffvehicles(daily), otherstaff(specificproject,contractors), deliveryvans(daily‐weeklysupplies), deliverytrucks(telescopecomponents), deliverytrucks(construction), constructionmachinery, helicopters, commercialtourvehicles, film,scientific,educational,military. COMMODITIES Commodities come in all shapes and sizes, some are locally supplied while others arrive from overseaspointsoforigin. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. freshproduce, packagedgoods(food,officesupplies,souvenirs), containerizedscientificequipment, containerizedconstructionsupplies, open‐loadconstructionsupplies, plants,seeds,plantparts,soil(outside‐restoration), plants,seeds,plantparts,soil(inside‐staffdecorations), dunnage (the wrapping, packaging and pallet material associated with the goods being transported). PEOPLE AND POSSESSIONS People who are required to have a permit include regular employees, occasional employees, and thoseprimarilyengagedinoutdooractivities. 18. Outdooractivitiesregulatedbypermits:scientific,film,projectstaff,military, 19. Regularemployees, 20. Occasionalemployeesandcontractors. P a g e 20 | 84 Non‐RegulatedPathways NotallvehiclesorvisitorsrequireapermitinordertovisittheMaunakeaarea.Thereforethelevel of influence that can be applied to these pathways is less than that for regulated pathways. This mayincreasetheriskandalsoinfluencetheselectionofmostappropriateriskreductionstrategy. VEHICLES AND VESSELS 21. touristsight‐seeingvehicles, 22. off‐roadandATV(outsideofUniversitymanagedareas), 23. hunters/hikers,snowplay,culturalpractitioners. COMMODITIES 24. culturalofferings, 25. trash(outdoors). PEOPLE AND POSSESSIONS 26. Tourist/sightseeing 27. off‐roadoperators(outsideofUniversitymanagedareas), 28. hunters/hikers,snowplay,culturalpractitioners. AnalysisofThreatPathwaysandProposedManagementOptions Atpresent,mostriskpreventionmeasuresarevoluntaryorsuggestedratherthanbeingenforced. However, some risk prevention actions for future construction of a new telescope (TMT) are requiredconditionsoftheirpermit. For the purpose of this document, proposed prevention actions focus on strategies for managing invasive species prior to their establishment within the Management Area or at its borders and belowtheSaddleRoad–SummitAccessRoadjunction(off‐siteriskreductionandinterceptions). These are separate from those actions or activities conducted to detect and manage invasive speciesaftertheirarrival(an“incursion”)whichisoutlinedinSection3;ormanagementofinvasive species already established within the Management Area (Section 4). Not every risk can be prevented or eliminated. Additionally, there are often external factors that increase risks but cannot be remedied. Therefore, any risk prevention strategy becomes a compromise limited by resources, external factors and practicality. Table 2.1a‐d lists each pathway identified in the previous section along with prevention strategies requiring low, moderate and high inputs. Logically a greater amount of input will provide a greater level of risk reduction, and not every option(low,medium,orhigh)willbelikelyappliedconsistentlyacrossallpathways duetolegal, practical,orotherconstraints. P a g e 21 | 84 Table2.1a.Optionsforriskprevention(Regulatedvehicles). 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 Regulated pathways regularstaff vehicles(daily) otherstaff (specificproject, contractors) deliveryvans (daily‐weekly supplies) deliverytrucks (telescope components) deliverytrucks (construction) construction machinery helicopters commercialtour vehicles film,scientific, educational, military Vehicles Lowcost Outreach and/or mandatory awareness training Outreachmay includesignage incarparks andstaffbreak rooms.And displaysof nativeandnon‐ nativeinvasive species encountered onregulated pathways. Trainingcould consistofone‐ timeor ongoing awarenessand information sessionson impactsof invasive speciesandthe needto maintaina cleanvehicleto prevent transportof invasive species. Moderatecost Highcost Regularcleaningof vehicles(interiorand exterior). Mandatedregular washingofvehicles usingagasstationcar washorsimilar.This shouldincludeunder‐ bodywashing. Frequencycouldbe determinedbyrisk–eg. passengervehicles wouldbealowerrisk thanconstruction trucks. Thisrequirementcould beapartofrelevant permitprovisions. Inspection/certification ofvehiclecleanliness priortoarrival. Supervisedorinspected power‐washingof vehicles(especially under‐bodiesand chassisrails)alongwith interiorcleaning. Theseprovisionscould bemandatedbythe appropriatepermitviaa requirementtowash andsupplementedby OMKMinspections. Inspection/certification ofvehiclecleanliness priortoarrival. P a g e 22 | 84 Table2.1b.Optionsforriskprevention(Regulatedcommodities). 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 Regulated Goods pathways freshproduce packagedgoods (food,office, souvenirs) containerized scientific equipment containerized construction supplies open‐load construction supplies plants,seeds,plant parts,soil (outside) plants,seeds,plant parts,soil(inside) dunnage Lowcost Moderatecost Highcost Outreach and/orphysical inspectionof itemsat destination. Outreachcould include appropriate signageat receiving locations. Goodsarriving atbuildings couldbe inspectedby theperson receivingthem. Anysuspect itemsor evidenceof arthropodsto bereportedto appropriate authority. Thiscouldbe voluntaryor mandated. Inspection/certification ofgoodsandfacilities priortoshipping (internal). Thismitigationmay includerequirementsfor facilityhygiene(eg,a pestcontrolprogram withlicensedpest controlcompany), storageofgoodsin appropriateconditions (offtheground,inside etc),andinspectionof goodsbyvendorpriorto shipmentoratan intermediatetransitsite. Mayalsoinclude requirementsfora statementofcompliance fromvendorwitheach shipmentorsupply contractandregular externalcompliance audit. Inspection/certification ofgoodsandfacilities priortoshipping (external). Inspectionoffacility hygieneandshipments byanexternalagencyor OMKM.Vendorfacilities toundergoregular hygieneauditsandgoods tobeinspectedand certifiedfreeofpests beforeshipping.This couldinclude phytosanitary inspectionsforplant material,visual inspectionsorother requirementsaspartof permitorapproval conditions. Table2.1c.Optionsforriskprevention(Regulatedpersons). 18 19 Regulated pathways People outdooractivities regulatedbypermits regularemployees Outreachand/or mandatory awarenesstraining. Provisionof outreachmaterial highlightingrisks 20 Lowcost occasionalemployees andcontractors Moderatecost Voluntary guidelinesfor cleaningof equipment(tents, packs,shoesand clothingetc) Highcost Mandatory cleaningof equipment(tents, packs,shoesand clothingetc) includingspraying personal equipmentwith pesticides. P a g e 23 | 84 Table2.1d.Optionsforriskprevention(unregulatedpathways) 21 22 Non‐regulated pathways touristsight‐seeing vehicles off‐roadandATV 23 hunters/hikers, snowplay,cultural practices. 24 culturalofferings 25 trash(outdoors) 26 27 tourist/sightseeing off‐roadoperators 28 hunters/hikers, snowplay,culturalpract. vehicles Lowcost Signage, pamphletsat visitorcenter, otheroutreach goods Lowcost Outreachand awarenessactivity especiallyfor culturalofferings andpractitioners. Regulartreatment ofwastebinsand surroundswith pesticides. people Lowcost Signage, pamphletsat visitorcenter, otheroutreach Moderatecost Voluntaryvehicle cleaningforregular visitors Moderatecost Promotethe conceptthatpeople takealltrashhome withthem. Voluntary guidelinesfor cultural practitioners. Regulartreatment ofwastebinsand surroundswith pesticides. Moderatecost Voluntary guidelinesfor regularvisitorsand off‐road/snowplay traffic. Highcost Mandatedwashing ofvehiclesusinga gasstationcar washorsimilar. Thisshould includeunder‐ bodywashing. Highcost Strict“leave nothingbehind” policy. Mandatory provisionsfor culturalofferings includinghygiene, pretreatmentwith pesticidesand limitsonwhatcan bebrought. Highcost Introducepermit requirementsfor high‐risk categories. P a g e 24 | 84 RecommendedPreventionStrategy Allpreventionstrategieswill: 1. Mitigatebiological,ecological,andhumanhealthrisksonMaunakeaandontheislandof Hawai‘i, 2. Prioritize preventative action prior to arrival at the Saddle Road Junction (i.e. at low elevationpriortoarrivalonUniversitymanagedlands), 3. Be adapted and updated based on invasive species monitoring and inspection data, knowledgeofpathwaysandspeciesthreats, 4. Apply the least intrusive means necessary (i.e. employ the lowest level efficacious preventionstrategyoption:low,moderate,orhighcost),and 5. Incorporateconcernsofmountainusersandlandowner. Appended portions of this plan provide detailed instructions to all mountain users as to the requiredpreventionstrategies(summarizedinTable2.2).StateandislandofHawai‘iinvasive speciescouncilsandcommitteeswillroutinelybeconsulted,alongwithadjacentland‐owners, to ensure practices are both ‘state‐of‐the‐art’ as well as practical and necessary. These strategiesaresummarizedbelowandinthefollowingtable. Low‐costmeasures,whichenhancemountainuserknowledgeofinvasivespeciesconcernson Maunakea, on the island of Hawai‘i, and elsewhere, will be applied at the first opportunity. Examplesofsuchlow‐costmeasuresapplicabletoallpathwaysandusersinclude: Mountainusereducationandorientation, Bringinguponlywhatisneeded, Emphasisoncleanliness,and Self‐inspectionandself‐verification(noverificationordocumentationrequired). Moderate‐cost measures incorporate low‐cost measures. In addition moderate‐cost measures willtypicallyemphasizeverificationofrecommendedpractices,withanemphasisonincreasing understandinganduserengagementincluding: Require practices of cleanliness and material minimization (rather than encourage them), IncludeverificationofcleanlinessbyOMKM(orDLNR‐approvedinspectors),and Includedocumentationofinspections. High‐cost measures will typically include low‐ and moderate‐cost practices as requirements, withindependentdocumentationthatactionshavebeencompletedandefficacious: High‐costmeasureswillonlybeemployedtopreventthegreatestknownorsuspected risks. Thirdpartysanitationaction(cleaning,fumigation,etc.)requiredatpointoforigin. Independentdocumentationofsanitationconductedatpointoforigin. P a g e 25 | 84 OMKM (DLNR‐approved) inspection of sanitation completeness prior to proceeding abovetheSaddleRoadJunction. PreventionstrategiesforregulatedpathwaysassumethatOMKMhasauthoritytorequireusers to engage in recommended or required actions, both on and off University managed lands. These strategies are cumulative, such that a high‐cost strategy incorporates all low‐ and moderate‐ cost elements unless stated otherwise. As identified elsewhere in this plan, preventionemphasizespathwaysandareasfrequentedbypeople.Invasivespeciesincursions by other ‘natural’ means such as wind or animal dispersion are addressed through early detection and rapid response procedures. While these strategies incorporate concerns of all users, ultimately all State of Hawai‘i laws, rules, policies, and permit requirements are incorporated. Preventionstrategiesfornon‐regulatedpathwayswillbeupdatedonceHawai‘iAdministrative Rules are approved and options for preventative actions are defined (i.e. actions can be requiredratherthanonlyvoluntary).Policiesandproceduresfornon‐regulatedpathwaysare anticipatedtoemploysimilarpreventionstrategiestoregulatedpathways.Aninitialemphasis onoutreachandeducation,voluntaryatleastuntilrulesareinplace,willallowopportunityto refinebestcommunicationpractices. P a g e 26 | 84 Table2.2.RecommendedpreventionstrategiesforentryofinvasivespeciesintotheManagement Area. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Regulatedpathways recommendedpreventionstrategy regularstaffvehicles (daily) otherstaff(specific project,contractors) deliveryvans(daily‐ weeklysupplies) deliverytrucks (telescope components) deliverytrucks (construction) Moderate:outreach,training,regularcleaning, SOP1 self‐inspectionwitheverytrip Moderate:outreach,training,regularcleaning, SOP1&2 self‐inspectionwitheverytrip Moderate:outreach,training,regularcleaning, SOP1&2 self‐inspectionwitheverytrip SOP1&2 Moderate:outreach,training,regularcleaning, self‐inspectionwitheverytrip Vehicle s Vehicle s Vehicle s Vehicle s Vehicle s Vehicle constructionmachinery s helicopters Vehicle s commercialtour vehicles film,scientific, educational,military Vehicle s Vehicle s 10 freshproduce Goods 11 packagedgoods(food, office,souvenirs) Goods 12 containerizedscientific equipment Goods 13 containerized constructionsupplies Goods 14 open‐loadconstruction supplies Goods 15 plants,seeds,plant parts,soil(outside) Goods 16 plants,seeds,plant parts,soil(inside) Goods 17 Dunnage Goods 18 outdooractivities regulatedbypermits People 19 regularemployees People 7 8 9 20 occasionalemployees andcontractors People Moderate:outreach,training,cleaning,DLNR‐ approvedbiologistinspection Moderate:outreach,training,cleaning,DLNR‐ approvedbiologistinspection Moderate:outreach,training,cleaning,DLNR‐ approvedbiologistinspection(notexplicitly addressedduetolimitedoccurrence) Moderate:outreach,training,regularcleaning, self‐inspectionwitheverytrip Moderate:outreach,training,regularcleaning, self‐inspectionwitheverytrip Moderate:outreach,training,cleaning,self‐ inspection,facilityhygiene,documentation Low:outreach,training,self‐inspection Moderate:outreach,training,cleaning,DLNR‐ approvedinspectors,pre‐shipmentinspection perpermit. Moderate:outreach,training,cleaning,DLNR‐ approvedinspectors,pre‐shipmentinspection perpermit. Moderate:outreach,training,cleaning,DLNR‐ approvedinspectors,pre‐shipmentinspection perpermit. High:onlyapprovedwithState‐recognizedand documentedefficacyofexistingphytosanitary treatmentandDLNR‐approvedinspector High:onlyapprovedwithState‐recognizedand documentedefficacyofexistingphytosanitary treatmentandDLNR‐approvedinspector Moderate:outreach,training,minimizeuse, cleaning,DLNR‐approvedinspectors,pre‐ shipmentinspectionperpermit. Moderate:outreach,training,regularcleaning, self‐inspectionwitheverytrip. Moderate:outreach,training,regularcleaning, self‐inspectionwitheverytrip. Moderate:outreach,training,regularcleaning, self‐inspectionwitheverytrip. Appendix Reference SOP1&2 SOP1&2 SOP1&2 SOP1 SOP1&2 SOP1&3 SOP1 SOP1&2 SOP1&2 SOP1&2 SOP4 SOP4 SOP1&2 SOP1 SOP1 SOP1 P a g e 27 | 84 Non‐regulated pathways 21 touristsight‐seeing vehicles 22 off‐roadandATV 23 hunters/hikers, snowplay,cultural pract. Vehicle s 24 culturalofferings Goods Moderate:outreach,orientation,pack‐it‐out emphasis,voluntaryguidelinesforcultural practitioners. 25 trash(outdoors) Goods Moderate:outreach,orientation,pack‐it‐out emphasis,pesticidetreatment. 26 tourist/sightseeing People 27 off‐roadoperators People 28 hunters/hikers, snowplay,cultural pract. People All:pending Administrativ eRules Vehicle s Vehicle s Moderate:outreach,orientation,voluntary cleaning. NotallowedonUniversitymanagedlands. (Otherwiseincorporate‘moderate’principles.) Moderate:outreach,orientation,voluntary cleaning. +Incorporate Constitutional protections +Pesticide usepending DLNR approval Moderate:outreach,orientation,voluntary guidelines. NotallowedonUniversitymanagedlands. (Otherwiseincorporate‘moderate’principles.) Moderate:outreach,orientation,voluntary guidelines. P a g e 28 | 84 Section3.MonitoringforNewandEstablishedInvasiveSpecies GeneralPrinciples Thepreventionstrategyoutlinedinsection2isthefirststepinthecontinuumofinvasivespecies management. This prevention strategy will be supplemented by a comprehensive and ongoing early detection and monitoring program that ensures new threats are quickly identified and managedaccordingtopre‐determinedprotocols;andestablishedinvasivespeciesaremonitoredto determine spread and impacts. These activities allows for a rapid response with the highest probabilityofasuccessfuloutcomeshouldnewspeciesbedetectedorthestatusofexistingspecies change. There is considerable overlap between activities designed to detect new species and monitoring established populations. For this reason, these two aspects of the management plan havebeencombined. Early detection and monitoring activities are to be prioritized in a manner that addresses the greatest risks; both in terms of invasive species with the greatest potential impacts and the sites wherethesespeciesmightfirstbecomeestablished.Invasivespeciesthreatsaredividedintothree categories for the purpose of this section (plants, arthropods and vertebrates). Monitoring methodologies within these groups are essentially the same, but substantially different between groups.ThemanagementzoneswithintheentireUH‐managedareahavebeendividedaccordingto their perceived risk and operational expediency. (For example, the road access between Halepōhakuandthesummitincludeslandswithdifferenttenurebutacommonpurpose.) AnalysisofRisk:ManagementZones TheprobabilityofnewspeciesenteringandbecomingestablishedwithintheManagementAreais directly related to the level of human activity experienced at a particular site and proximity to anthropogenic structures (buildings, roads, earthworks). Early detection activities should thereforefocusonsiteswiththegreatestamountofhumanuse.Belowisabriefdescriptionofthe managementzonesindecreasingorderofrisk. HALEPŌHAKU The mid‐level Visitor Information Station and Onizuka Center for International Astronomy are located on a 19.3‐acre site at the entry to the Management Area at an altitude of 9,200 ft A.S.L. ThesebuildingsmarktheroadentrytotheManagementArea.TheVisitorInformationCenterisa staging point for public visitors and is comprised of a gift store, restrooms, picnic tables, and informationcenter.TheAstronomyCenterhousesscientistsandtechnicalstaff.Itisalsousedasa stagingpointforequipment,suppliesandconstructionmaterialsboundfortheAstronomyPrecinct onthesummit. Together,thesesitesexperiencetheheaviestvisitorandemployeeusageoftheentireManagement Area.TheOfficeofMaunaKeaManagementestimatesthatin2014over40,000vehiclesvisitedthe P a g e 29 | 84 Management Area above Halepōhaku [Hunter pers comm]. Of these, approximately 76% of vehicleswereoperatedbymembersofthepublic(anon‐regulatedpathway)anditisreasonableto assume that many of these stop at the Visitor Information Station to acclimatize before either venturingfurtherorreturning. Surveyfrequencyandintensityneedstobegreatestatthesefacilities.Theyreceivemorehuman and vehicular traffic than any other zone within the Management Area and much of the larger construction items bound for the summit are delivered here before transport to the summit. Additionally, the structures provide a variety of micro‐climates, thus increasing the risk of establishmentofnon‐nativespecies(15)andimplythatcontroleffortsaroundfacilitieswhichreduce thepotentialriskofspreadingorfacilitatingestablishmentofnon‐nativespeciesarebeneficial. ROADWAY CORRIDOR The road corridor connecting Halepōhaku with the summit and Astronomy Precinct comprises approximately 45‐acres of road bed and 700‐acres of surrounding undisturbed landscape. There areseveralsmallcarparkingareasalongtheroadcorridorbetweenHalepōhakuandtheMaunakea ScienceReserve.AlltraffictothesummitofMaunakeatravelsalongthisroad. Humandisturbance,especiallysoildisturbanceisoftenimplicatedinfacilitatingtheestablishment andspreadofinvasivespecies(16).This,coupledwiththeheavyvehicularuseonthisroadincreases the risk of entry, establishment and spread of new invasive species(17) as well as those species alreadypresentwithintheManagementArea. The soil disturbed by road construction and regular grading provides a ready‐made site for seed germination and plant establishment. Mean annual rainfall for this area ranges from 28" ‐ 16", decreasing with elevation (Rainfall Atlas of Hawaii, http://rainfall.geography.hawaii.edu/). However, road construction results in the concentration of water in run‐off ditches and culverts. This additional moisture will increase germination and survival especially for non‐native plants. Therefore,roadvergesandnearbyvegetationaretobesurveyedonaregularbasis. ASTRONOMY PRECINCT The 525‐acre astronomy precinct is home to thirteen observatories with associated outbuildings; eachstaffedbyscientificandtechnicalpersonnel[Figure3.1].Thestructuresatthesummiteach provide altered microclimates, potentially suitable for supporting invasive species not ordinarily abletoestablishathighaltitudes.Withinthismanagementzone,vehicularandhumanmovement iscloselyassociatedwithstructures(observatories,outbuildingsandroads). TheAstronomyPrecinctissituatedatthesummitofMaunakea,withmoststructuresatelevations between 13,300 and 13,700 ft above sea level. The extreme altitude is not generally a good environmentforplantestablishment.However,thebuildingscanprovideprotectionfromextremes of wind and temperature and create a variety of microhabitats suitable for establishment of P a g e 30 | 84 introducedplantandanimalspecies.Meanannualrainfallforthisareaisapproximately8",which increaseswithdecreasingelevationintotheMaunaKeaScienceReserve(RainfallAtlasofHawaii, http://rainfall.geography.hawaii.edu/). Road verges, again, provide better conditions for seed germination.Landnotimmediatelyadjacenttothesestructuresisnotaslikelytoprovideadequate germinationconditions. Figure3.1AerialviewoftheMaunakeaAstronomyPrecinctwithMaunakeaManagementArea(inset). ImagetakenfromGoogleEarthaccessedAugust2014. MAUNA KEA SCIENCE RESERVE Theremainderofthe Management Area,known asthesciencereserve,coversanareaof 11,288‐ acres. Human visitation to this area is lower than other management zones and is largely frequented by hunters, scientific staff and visitation to the various sites of cultural significance. Access to much of this area is difficult. The greatest risk of entry and establishment of invasive P a g e 31 | 84 speciesforthispartoftheManagementAreaislateralmovementofthesespeciesfromneighboring lands.Thispresentsanoperationalprobleminrelationtoearlydetectionandmonitoringactivities because the boundary between the Mauna Kea Science Reserve and neighboring lands is not associatedwitharoad,trailorothernavigablemeansofborderpatrol. Systematic surveys of the entire 11,288‐acre Science Reserve will be very resource‐intensive and likely to be impractical. The nearest road to the lower boundary of this zone is the Maunakea Skyline Road known as the “R1”; a 32 mile road that (with a portion of the Saddle Road) circumnavigates Maunakea, running from immediately below the Visitor Information Station, and terminating at the Saddle Road (Figure 3.2). The R1 is a graded track suited to four wheel drive vehiclesandmotorcyclesonly,andisusedfrequentlybytheoff‐roadcommunityforscenicdriving. Thisroadprovidesanopportunitytointerceptinvasiveplantandanimalspeciesthatmighttravel throughlateralspreadtoencroachontheMaunaKeaScienceReserve. P a g e 32 | 84 Figure 3.2. Aerial image showing the Maunakea Management Area and the roads immediately adjacent. AnalysisofRisk:PotentialThreatSpecies PLANTS For the purpose of this section of the management plan, invasive plant species are; 1) already presentontheManagementArea;2)notpresentbutgrowingneartheManagementArea;or3)not P a g e 33 | 84 present on Hawai‘i island but identified as serious threats [Table 3.1, 3.2 and 3.3]. High priority speciesnotpresentwithintheManagementAreawillbetargetedinearlydetectionsurveyswhile thosethatarealreadypresentwillbetargetedformonitoringandresponseactivitiesaccordingto thelevelofthreattheypose.Theselistswillchangeasnewspeciesaredetectedandnewthreats identified.Afulllisthasbeenappendedandwillbeupdatedaschangesoccur. Thepotential“invasiveness”ofplantspeciescanbedifficulttopredictapriori.TheHawai‘iWeed Risk Assessment(18), based on earlier work in New Zealand(19) is considered by many to be the currentbest‐practicemethodforpredictinginvasiveness.Thelevelofthreatposedbyaparticular speciesisbasedonresponsesto49questionsaboutaplant’sbiology,ecology&invasivetendencies elsewhere.Theanswersresultinascore(theWRAscore)thatpredictswhetheraplantislikelyto beinvasiveinHawai‘i.Plantswithhigherscoresposeagreaterthreatthanthosewithlowerscores. The level of accuracy of this system is approximately 85%(18), thus there is some uncertainty of results.TheHawai‘iWeedRiskAssessmentdatabasewillbeusedtorankallpotentialandcurrent invasive plant species. Detection, monitoring and response actions will be based on the threat scores generated by this assessment method, supplemented by field observations of the species thatindicateanincreasedordecreasedlevelofthreatcomparedwiththeHWRAscoreonfile,and inputfromadjacentland‐owners,knowledgeofaffectsofaltitude,andregulatoryagencies. The prevailing method for survey and monitoring of invasive plants is by visual searches, often conductedinassociationwithphysicalremoval of anyexoticspeciesthatareencountered(when suitablyqualifiedortrainedstaffareabletoidentifynon‐nativespeciesinthefield).Acompletelist ofmitigationmethodsisappended. TheHawai‘iWeedRiskAssessmentscoreshallbedeterminedforallnon‐nativeplantswithinthe ManagementArea andthoseatrisk frombecoming established.Species withascoreof 7orless will be categorized as “low” priority; those that score between 8 and 16 shall be categorized as “medium”priorityandthosescoring17orhighershallbe“high”priorityspecies.Prioritiesshallbe adjusted based on input from adjacent land‐owners and regulatory agencies, and reflect control statusofadjacentStateland‐ownerpracticesunlesseradication(ormeaningfulcontrol)ispractical exclusivelyonManagementareas. Low Priority Species TheseplantsareunlikelytodegradetheMaunakeaManagementAreainanappreciableway.They maybesmall,spreadveryslowlyoronlybyvegetativemeans.Theyshouldbepulledordestroyed ifencounteredinadestructionactivityforotherhigherpriorityspecies. Medium Priority Species Thesespecieshavecharacteristicsthatareundesirable,andmaythreatenordegradetheecological, cultural or aesthetic values of the area. The distribution of these species are to be mapped and populations monitored to determine whether the WRA score is an accurate reflection of that species’ “weediness”. A control plan is to be prepared for each species or incorporated into management area control plans, (although such a control plan may not necessarily include treatmentordestruction),andtheinvasivestatusbereportedinannualreports. P a g e 34 | 84 High Priority Species High Priority species are very invasive, have the ability to spread quickly and over‐run the ecosystems they invade. Often, these species have additional negative impacts to environments, cultural and aesthetic values. For each high priority species present on UH‐managed lands at Maunakea, a response plan will be prepared in accordance with the policies and procedures outlinedinSection5(EmergencyResponsePlanning,seeFigure5.2).Thisresponseplanwilldetail thelevelofresponse:eradication,aggressivecontrol,longtermmanagement;afterconsideringall availabledata. ThetypicaldecisionmakingprocessforresponsetothesespeciesisdetailedinFigure3.3. Introducedspecies foundonManagement Area Obtainorcalculate HWRAscore Score=1‐7 Lowpriorityspecies Score=8‐16 Mediumpriority species Score=>16 Highpriorityspecies Prepareand implementacontrol plan Followproceduresin section5.Existing species,refertosection 4. Nospecificaction(ad hocdestructionin associationwithother operations) Figure3.3.ProcessformanagingintroducedplantspeciesonMaunakeaManagementArea. Introduced Plant Species Currently Growing on the Maunakea Management Area Monitoring and control procedures will be developed for all species currently growing on the Management Area. The complexity, level of involvement by oversight committees, and resources allocatedtoeachspecieswillbedeterminedbythelevelofthreat(biological,culturalandaesthetic) P a g e 35 | 84 theypose.Manyspecieswillseenominalcontrolefforts,giventheirwidespreadpresenceonthe islandandthreatlevel. Table3.1.ListofintroducedplantspeciespresentontheManagementAreaandHWRAscore(where available). species Achilleamillefolium Anthoxanthumodoratum Bidenspilosa Bromuscatharticus Bromusdiandrus Chamaecytisus prolifera var. palmensis Coreopsislanceolata Dactylisglomerata Ehrhartacalycina Epilobiumbillardierianum Erodiumcicutarium Eschscholziacalifornica Eucalyptusspp. Gaillardiapulchella Geraniumhomeanum Heterothecagrandiflora Holcuslanatus Hypochoerisradicata Lepidiumspp. Loliumspp. Marrubiumvulgare Mollugocerviana Nassellacernua Oenotherastricta Pennisetumclandestinum Poaannua Poapratensis Rumexacetosella Rytidospermasemiannulare Seneciomadagascariensis Seneciosylvaticus Seneciovulgaris Taraxacumofficinale Tragopogonporrifolius commonname commonyarrow sweetvernalgrass spanishneedle rescuegrass ripgutgrass broom(tagasaste) Ko‘oko‘olau haole, lanceleaftickseed orchardgrass perennialveldtgrass willowherb alifaria,pinclover Californiapoppy eucalyptus indianblanket Australasiangeranium telegraphplant velvetgrass gosmore peppergrass ryegrass horehound carpetweed needlegrass eveningprimrose kikuyugrass annualbluegrass Kentuckybluegrass sheepsorrel wallabygrass fireweed woodlandragwort commongroundsel commondandelion salsify HWRA 19 11 23 Priority high medium high 18 high 14 medium 23 high P a g e 36 | 84 Trifoliumarvense Verbascumthapsus Verbascumvirgatum Verbenalitoralis Vulpiabromoides lanceclover mullein wandmullein ōwī bromefescue Introduced plant species currently growing near or adjacent to the Maunakea Management Area Species not currently present on the Management Area, but known to be established on adjacent land (Table 3.2) are to be targeted in early detection/monitoring surveys (or on the island Table 3.3).ThesespeciescouldbetransportedtotheManagementAreabyhuman‐assisteddispersal(as seeds or propagative material carried on people, goods or vehicles) or spread from established populationsgrowingneartheexternalboundary. The Halepōhaku, road corridor and the Astronomy Precinct are the most likely locations for establishment of new introduced plant species, so early detection surveys are to focus on those areas. The external boundary of the Management Area is not readily accessible for survey purposes. As a surrogate, the R1 road shall be surveyed for introduced plant species. These surveys are to record the identity and locations of any medium and high priority target species. Surveys of the remainder of the Science Reserve shall be limited to areas experiencing regular humantrafficorconcurrentwithothermanagementactivities:knownwalkingtrailsandcultural sites,historicpropertymonitoring,etc. Table 3.2. List of introduced plants growing on lands immediately adjacent to, but not within, the Maunakea Management Area (identified in reports published by Hakalau NWR, Mauna Kea Forest ReserveorNAR,orDepartmentofHawaiianHomeLands). species Agrostisalba Andropogonvirginicus Anemonehupehensis Axonopusfissifolius Cerastiumfontanum Conyzabonariensis Cryptomeriajaponica Delaireaodorata Ehrhartastipoides Fuchsiaspp. Hedychiumgardnerianum Ilexaquifolium Juncuseffuses Lonicerajaponica Paspalumdilatatum commonname HWRA redtop broomsedge Japaneseanemone narrow‐leaved 16 carpetgrass mouse‐earchickweed fleabane sugipine ‐3 Germanivy 14 weeping grass, meadowricegrass fuchsia kahiliginger 16 holly Japanese mat rush, commonrush Japanesehoneysuckle 12 dallisgrass 12 Priority medium low medium medium medium medium P a g e 37 | 84 Passifloramollissima Photiniadavidiana Pinusspp. Psidiumcattleianum Rubusargutus Rubusrosifolius Stellariamedia Tibouchinaherbacea Ulexeuropaeus bananapoka photinia pine strawberryguava Floridablackberry thimbleberry commonchickweed glorybush commongorse ‐2 low 18 21.5 10 high high medium 24 20 high high An abbreviated list of introduced plants growing on Hawai‘i Island is limited to: a) species previouslyeradicatedfromtheManagementarea,b)speciesidentifiedasinvasivebyadjacentland owners (i.e. the Maunakea Watershed Alliance), c) other species that potentially can survive and reproduceinthehighelevationenvironment. Table 3.3. List of introduced plants already found on Hawai‘i Island, but not within the Maunakea Management Area or immediately adjacent lands (identified in reports published for Pōhakuloa TrainingArea). species Angiopterisevecta Asclepiasphysocarpa Circiumvulgare Clidemiahirta Cocciniagrandis Ficusrubiginosa Fraxinusuhdei Grevillearobusta Kalanchoetubiflora Lophospermumerubescens Melastomacandidum Miconiacalvescens Morellafaya Nicotianaglauca Passifloratarminiana Pennisetumsetaceum Ricinuscommunis Rubusellipticus Salsolakali Schinusterebinthifolius Setariapalmifolia SolanumPseudocapsicum commonname HWRA mule'sfootfern 8 balloonplant 8 bullthistle 18.5 Koster'scurse ivygourd PortJacksonfig 7 tropicalwhiteash 11 silkyoak 5 maternityplant creepinggloxinia 5 Asian melastome, 13 Malabarmalastome miconia 14 firetree 8 treetobacco 15 bananapoka 24 fountaingrass 26 castorbean 21 yellow Himalayan 18.0 raspberry tumbleweed 18.5 Christmasberry 19 palmgrass Jerusalemcherry Priority medium medium high low medium low low medium medium medium medium high high high high high high P a g e 38 | 84 Sphaeropteriscooperi Tibouchinaurvilleana Australiantreefern princess‐flower 8 10 medium medium Survey design and frequency: invasive plants Thefrequencyandscopeofearlydetectionandmonitoringactivitiesaredeterminedbythelevelof risk that each management zone presents relative to other zones. The Halepōhaku and road corridorzonesarethehighestriskareasduetothehighlevelsofhumanvisitationandmovement ofcommodities.TheAstronomyPrecinctreceiveslowervisitationandtheareasawayfromroads and buildings are less amenable to germination and growth of introduced species. The Science reservehasthelowestvisitation,andhumanactivityislimitedtotrailsandculturalsites.Hunters, hikers,scientific,andOfficeofMaunaKeaManagementstaffarethemostfrequentvisitorsforthe remainderofthiszone.Thesepersonnelpossessanenhancedawarenessofthedangersofinvasive species and more likely to take preventative actions prior to embarkation. Table 3.4 lists the frequency,typeandscopeofsurveysforintroducedplants.Surveymethodstobeusedforthese activitiesareappended. Table3.4.Surveyfrequencyandscopefordetectionandmonitoringintroducedplantspecies. Survey frequency ManagementZone Surveytype scope1 Halepōhakuand Roadcorridor Establishedandpotential threatspecies Alllandwithin300ftof Twice structuresandwithin60ft annually ofroadsandparkinglots Astronomy precinct Establishedandpotential threatspecies Alllandwithin150ftof structuresandwithin60ft annually ofroadsandparkinglots ScienceReserve Establishedandpotential threatspecies Trailsandculturalsites, siteswithestablished introducedspecies R1road Potentialthreatspeciesonly2 Alllandwithin30ftof roadverges Minimum every2years, remotesites lessfrequent Minimum every2years VERTEBRATES Asidefromdogsandferalungulates,cats,mongooseandrodentsarethegreatestvertebratethreat to the Management Area. Mongoose are rarely encountered and are to be reported as‐seen. Commensal rodents (mice and rats) are most prevalent in conjunction with human habitation. Feralcatsareoccasionallyencountered.Introducedbirds,whilecommon,havenoknowncontrol methods for an otherwise unbounded Management Area; and as mentioned previously environmentalconditionsarenotknowntoprovidesuitablehabitatforreptilesandamphibians. 1Onceahighormoderatepriorityspeciesisdetected,surveytodelimittheextentwillcontinuebeyondthe distanceslistedbelow. 2EstablishedintroducedspeciesmayalsoberecordedasdeterminedbyOfficeofMaunaKeaManagement. P a g e 39 | 84 Thereisnoexistingconsistentriskanalysisforintroducedvertebratesasthereisforplants.Rather prioritiesaresetinconsultationwithFederalandStatewildlifemanagementagencies. Survey design and frequency: invasive vertebrates As outlined in the introduction, The Office of Mauna Kea Management has no legal authority for managing feral ungulates and other game species. However, current practice at Maunakea is to search for scat (dung), on an ad hoc basis, collate and map the resulting data. The latest map, prepared by OMKM (Figure 3.4) shows the majority of ungulate activity within the road access corridor,VisitorInformationCenterandtheAstronomyprecinct.Thismayreflectsurveyeffortin theseareasasopposedtothedensityoftargetspecies. Figure3.4.Locationofanimalscatandsurveymethod,MaunakeaManagementArea,2004. P a g e 40 | 84 TheOfficeofMaunaKeaManagementdoesnotactivelycontrolvertebratepestssuchasungulates and game animals. However, staff may observe these animals during normal duties and these sightingsshouldbereportedinamannerthatspatialdatamaybecompiledtoassistotheragencies withmanagingthesespecies.Encounterswithanimalscatshouldalsobedocumented. Surveysandmonitoringforcommensalrodents(ratsandmice)andferalcatswillbeconductedto Institutional Animal Care and Use and Committee (IACUC) standards. All buildings and other structures will be kept free of mice and rats using a control system that conforms to current standards.Additionalsightingsofmice,ratsorharboragebeyondtheseareaswillbereportedby OfficeofMaunaKeaManagementastheycometohand(seeTable3.5forsummary). Table3.5.Surveyfrequencyandscopefordetectionandmonitoringvertebrates. ManagementZone Surveytype Halepōhaku Roadcorridor Astronomy precinct ScienceReserve R1road Reportsightingsofdogs, ungulatesandmongooseas encountered. Ongoingrodentpestcontrol programinandaround structures Reportsightingsofungulates andmongooseasencountered. Reportscatandevidenceof vertebrateuse(grazing, harborageetc.) Reportsightingsofungulates andmongooseasencountered Ongoingrodentpestcontrol programinandaround structures Reportsightingsofungulates andmongooseasencountered. Reportscatandevidenceof vertebrateuse(grazing, harborageetc.) Nosurvey scope Survey frequency adhoc annualreportperIACUC standards ongoing adhoc coordinatedwithNAR program ongoing adhoc annualreportperIACUC standards ongoing adhoc ongoing ARTHROPODS Invertebrates (arthropods) have great potential to alter the ecological functioning of the ManagementAreaaswellasimpactingontheintegrityofculturalresourcesandhumanhealth(20). The greatest potential impacts are most likely to be caused by “social insects” (ants, wasps, bees and termites). These insects live cooperatively and have the greatest potential to establish and P a g e 41 | 84 spread. For example, the Argentine ant (Linepithema humile) has successfully invaded Haleakalā National Park on Maui and spread to elevations above 9000 ft(21), reducing abundance of other invertebratesincludingpollinatorsoftheHaleakalāsilversword(Argyroxiphiumsandwicensesubsp. macrocephalum). Once established, social insects are very difficult to control or eradicate, often requiringsubstantialhumanresourcesandmaterials. Thefollowinggroupsofinvertebratesarethehighprioritytargetspeciesforbothearlydetection and ongoing monitoring (appended invertebrate identification guide will be updated more frequentlythanthisdocument): 1. Ants (Order: Hymenoptera, Suborder: Apocrita, Family: Formicidae) and other taxa that are morphologicallysimilar,i.e.looklikeants, 2. Wasps(Order:Hymenoptera,Suborder:Apocrita,Families:Vespidae,Pompilidae,&Mutilidae) and other taxa that are morphologically similar, i.e. look like large wasps. [Excluded are: SuborderApocrita,Families:Bradynobeanidae,Falsiformicidae,Rhopalosomatidae,Sapygidae, Scoliidae,Sierolomorphidae,Tiphiidae]), 3. Spiders(Order:Aranae), 4. Beetles (Order: Coleoptera) [Excluded are Suborder: Polyphaga, Family: Coccinellidae – i.e. ladybugs), 5. Horn & Stable Flies (Order: Diptera, Suborder: Brachycera, Family: Muscidae, Subfamily: Muscinae,Tribe:Stomoxyini) 6. Centipedes(Order:Scolopendromorpha,Family:Scolopendridae,Genus:Scolopendra),and 7. Mollusks(Phylum:Mollusca). Survey design and frequency: invasive arthropods Therearenumerousmethodstosurveyandmonitorfornon‐nativearthropods,includingmollusks. Innaturaloroutdoorareas,visualsearching,pitfalltrapping anddeployment ofvialsbaitedwith foodluresarethepredominantmethods.Sweepnetsareaneffectivemethodtosurveyinsectsin shrubsandlowvegetation.Largertreescanbesurveyedbyphysicallyjoltingthestemandcatching arthropodsintraysastheyfall.Themosteffective(andtime‐consuming)surveymethodfortaller vegetationinvolvesfoggingthecanopywithanon‐residualpesticideandcollectingallinsectsthat fallwithasheetlaidontheground. Ofthemethodslistedabove,visualsearchesandpitfalltrappingaremostlikelytocaptureavariety of species groups. Visual searching (with trained staff) is the most efficient. However, when monitoringforasinglespecies,theremaybesuperiorspecies‐specificmethodsavailable. Indoor sampling methods include visual surveys and baited glue boards. Glue boards shall be deployed on an ongoing basis in areas near arthropod habitat (warm areas, close proximity to water, shelter or food). Boards can be inspected at pre‐determined intervals. Recommended surveyfrequenciesarelistedinTable3.6. P a g e 42 | 84 Table 3.6. survey frequency and scope for detection of and monitoring for introduced arthropod species. ManagementZone Surveytype Halepōhaku Baitedandun‐baitedpitfall trapssupplementedbyvisual searchesaspitfalltrapsare retrieved.Weedpullaround facilities. Baitedglueboardsindoors Baitedglueboards,vials outdoors Roadcorridor Visualsearchesandarrayof baitedandunbaitedtraps Astronomy precinct ScienceReserve R1road Visualsearchesandarrayof baited&unbaitedtraps Baitedglueboardsandvisual searches Quadratsurveysalongpaths andwalkingtrails.Thorough visualsurveyandbaitedvials aroundculturalsites Visualsearcheswithin quadratsonhighsideof roadway scope distributedacrossentire parcel indoorsinfacilities outsideoffacilities entireroadcorridor, emphasisonpull‐outs, parkingareas,trailheads, etc. roadway,facilities,and undevelopedareas allfacilitiesindoorand outdoor trailsurveytocomprise 5%oftraillength Survey frequency twice annually monthly quarterly annually annually quarterly minimum every2years, remotesites lessfrequent totalquadratstocomprise minimum 1%ofroadlength every2years P a g e 43 | 84 Section4.ControlofEstablishedInvasiveSpecies GeneralPrinciples Non‐nativeplantandanimalspeciesestablishedwithintheManagementareahavethepotentialto impact the cultural, environmental and aesthetic values of the Maunakea landscape. However, management actions designed to mitigate these impacts also have the potential to affect the very valuestheyaimtoprotect.Controlactionstherefore,mustbeselectedaftercarefulconsideration ofallfactorsincludingculturalandsocialissues.Often,thecourseofactioneventuallyselectedwill beacompromisebetweenecological,aestheticandculturalcostsandbenefits. Theselectionofresponsemethodsistobemadeafterfullconsiderationofthefollowingquestions: 1. Will the proposed response have a reasonable probability of achieving the desired objectiveoroutcome? Oftenthereareseveralpossibleresponseorcontrolmethodsavailabletodecisionmakers.Itcan be difficult to determine the exact probability of a successful outcome when comparing methods, however, it may be possible to determine (by Bayesian or group consensus) which methods are likely to be effective. Those that are unlikely to be effective should not be selected without changingtheobjectiveandacknowledgingthereasonsforchangingobjectives. 2. Doestheproposedresponseadheretobestpracticepestcontrolprinciplesofusingthe leasttoxicmethodtoachievethedesiredobjectiveoroutcome? Theidealofbest‐practicepestcontrolistoemploytheleasttoxicmethodusingtheleastamountof pesticide necessary to achieve the desired level of control. Following this best‐practice guideline ensures the lowest possible level of non‐target or environmental impact. This ideal includes selectionofmethodsthataremoretarget‐specificthanotheroptions. 3. Are anticipated non‐target impacts an acceptable cultural, environmental or aesthetic cost? Theremaybeinstanceswherecertaincontroloptionscouldpotentiallyresultinunwantedimpacts ontheenvironmentalvaluesortootherorganismslivinginassociationwiththenon‐nativespecies beingcontrolled.Thecosts(unwantedimpacts)mustbeweighedagainstthebenefits(removalof the target species) in a way that allows an informed decision to be made. At times, non‐target impacts may be an acceptable cost in order to prevent even larger impacts from the non‐native species,andinothersituationstheunwantedimpactsarenotacceptable. 4. What are the consequences of taking no action or selecting a response method with lowerefficacy? There may be conflicts between a desire to use non‐pesticide methods (physical, cultural or biological controls) rather than conventional use of pesticides to achieve a pest control objective. These conflicts may be influenced by social or cultural desires to employ methods deemed more P a g e 44 | 84 “natural”. While this document does not attempt to determine which course of action is most appropriate,itisimportanttofullyconsiderthecosts(economic,environmentalandcultural)when makingthesedecisions. LegislationandRegulatoryRequirements The use of pesticides is subject to federal, state and sometimes county laws, statutes and regulations. Laws and regulations relating to the use of pesticides, herbicides, rodenticides and fungicidesontheManagementAreaareadministeredbythefollowingagencies: THE ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY (EPA) All substances used for the control of plant and animal pests must be registered with the Environmental Protection Agency in accordance with the Federal Insecticide Fungicide and Rodenticide Act (7 U.S.C. §136 et seq.) (1996). Also known as FIFRA, this act (and associated legislation)regulatespesticideuse,distributionandsale. HAWAI‘I DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE TheHDOAPesticideBranchadministersHawai‘iRevisedStatuteschapter149(Hawai‘iPesticides Law) and associated Hawai‘i Administrative Rules Chapter 66. Almost all pesticides used in the stateofHawai‘imusthavebothEPAandHawai‘iregistration. The use of pesticides in a manner that does not comply with the product label (off‐label use) requiresapermitfromHDOAPesticidesBranch.Thereareseveralpermittypesthatmayapplyfor controlactivitieswithintheManagementArea: Special Local Need Permit ASpecialLocalNeed(SLN)permitmaybeissuedbyHDOAinordertoallowtheuseofacurrently registered pesticide in a manner not in compliance with the official state product label. Under normal circumstances, an SLN may be issued when there is no currently registered alternative productavailableforthepurpose.Itisnormalpracticefortheregistranttomaketheapplication, provideadditionallabelinstructionsandefficacydatatosupportthenewusepattern. Experimental Use Permit Bonafideresearchpersonnelwhohavetheappropriatepesticideapplicatorlicensemayapplyfor an Experimental Use Permit when wishing to test or research a new product or use an existing productinanewway.Theaimofsuchapermitistogatherdataratherthanachieveapestcontrol objective. The size of the area used for treatment must be less than ten acres. Experiments that coverlessthan0.25‐acresmaybeexempt.Ifanarealargerthantenacresisrequired,afederalEUP permitwillbeneeded. Manufacturer’s Recommendation 2E‐E If a proposed use pattern is not specifically prohibited on the label of a pesticide, the registrant (manufacturer) may issue a 2E‐E recommendation allowing the proposed use pattern. These are submittedbytheregistrant,usuallyattherequestoftheagencythatrequiresit. P a g e 45 | 84 Commercial Applicator License Some pesticides are classified as “restricted use”. In order to purchase and use restricted‐use pesticides, an operator needs to possess a commercial applicator license issued in the state of Hawai‘i.ThetestsandlicensesareissuedbytheHawai‘iDepartmentofAgriculture. HAWAI‘I DEPARTMENT OF HEALTH TheCleanWaterAct(33U.S.C.§1251etseq.)(1972)regulatesthedischargeorpotentialdischarge of pesticides into certain water bodies. Any application of pesticides or herbicides over, or near such waters may require a permit issued by the state Department of Health Clean water Branch. PotentiallytheCleanWaterActwillapplytoanypesticideusenearLakeWai‘au. Hawai‘i Dept. of Health also administers Chapter 343 of Hawai‘i Revised Statutes “Environmental Impact Statements”, which for the purpose of pesticide use on Maunakea regulates requirements for preparing Environmental Impact Statements or Environmental Assessments Per the Statute, The minimum requirement for use of pesticides in the Science Reserve requires is an EnvironmentalAssessment.Pesticideusewithinoradjacenttobuildingsandotherstructuresdoes notfallundertheseprovisions. HAWAI‘I DEPARTMENT OF LAND AND NATURAL RESOURCES The UH Managed Lands are located within the state’s Conservation District, Resource Subzone. ApplicationofherbicidesandpesticidestoanareagreaterthanoneacrerequiresaDLNR‐approved siteplan(H.A.R.Title13‐5). OTHER CONSIDERATIONS FOR PESTICIDE USE ON MAUNAKEA The UH Managed Lands are located within the state’s Conservation District, Resource Subzone. ApplicationofherbicidesandpesticidestoanareagreaterthanoneacrerequiresaDLNR‐approved siteplan,containedasanappendixtothisdocument(H.A.R.Title13‐5). Broadcastherbicideandpesticideuseshouldbeavoidedinthealpinestonedesertabove12,800ft elevation, within 15 feet of endangered plants, and within a 200‐foot buffer around historic propertiessuchasburials. Pesticide baits in bait stations are generally highly specific and may be used throughout the UH ManagedLands,whenusedaccordingtolabelandinconsultationwithexperiencedprofessionals. The cold, dry conditions of Maunakea slow the microbial breakdown of chemicals to inert compounds.Theleastpersistentformulationamongeffectiveoptionsispreferred. ControlMethods Current control of non‐native plants on University managed lands is addressed via management zones.IntheAstronomyPrecinctandMaunakeaScienceReserve,Rangerstaffpullandreportall non‐native species observed. OMKM staff track and report on these activities. Along the road P a g e 46 | 84 corridor, below the MKSR, non‐native plants are pulled in conjunction with volunteer groups; although few volunteer groups are currently identified which are prepared to hike in the rugged terrain. In Halepōhaku, OMKM staff and volunteer groups conduct semi‐monthly volunteer weed pullstargetingallnon‐nativespeciesexceptgrasses.Forarthropods,controlwithinfacilitiesisleft largely to building owners. Outside of buildings, non‐native arthropod control decisions are currently made in consultation with the State DLNR entomologist. Currently control efforts are limitedtospottreatmentforantsatHalepōhakuandswarmtrapsforhoneybees,allotherknown non‐nativespeciesofconcernaremonitored. PLANTS Theselectionofacontroltechniqueisspecies‐andsituation‐specific,butcangenerallybepredicted by taxa and by the density, size, and area of the plants. Treatment options described below are derivedfromcommonpracticesamongconservationagenciesinHawai‘i,herbicidelabels,andthe literatureonweedcontrolinHawai‘i(22‐25). Cultural Control Culturalcontrolincludesmaintainingorrestoringundisturbedsoiloragroundcoverofdesirable plantstosuppresstheestablishmentofnewweeds.AsthenaturalvegetationinmostoftheMKSR is sparse, cultural control options are limited to avoiding unnecessary disturbance of the natural rocksubstrate.Controlsandmonitoringofconstructionsites,prohibitionofoffroad vehicleuse, and requiring visitors to observe established trails and parking areas all support this objective. Ungulatesalsocontributetosoildisturbanceandtheremovalorpopulationcontrolofthesespecies isrecommended. The restoration plan under development for the Halepōhaku area prescribes revegetation with nativeshrubsandgrasses.The“natural”densityofvegetationcoverforthisareaisunknown,due to the long history of disturbance and grazing by non‐native ungulates. Comparison with other high, dry habitats suggests that it will remain open woodland with sparse bunchgrass and shrub understory. Encouraging native grass and shrubs to occupy prime locations, and limiting disturbancethroughpreventionmeasuresdescribedabove,arecomponentsofculturalcontrolfor thisarea.InkeepingwithHawai‘iAdministrativeRules(HAR),restorationplanswillbedeveloped fortheHalepōhakuareaandprescriberevegetationwithnativeshrubsandgrasses(andanyother areasasappropriate). Mechanical or Manual Control Mechanical methods include cutting, tilling, disking, or bulldozing with the aid of motorized equipment. These methods all increase soil disturbance and erosion and are not suitable for the ManagementArea.Manualcontrolmethodssuchashand‐pulling,cutting,anddiggingorgrubbing are more suitable although these methods are slow, labor intensive, and may allow plants to surviveandresprout.Formanyspecies,theentireplant,includingthetaprootandfruitorflowers must be dug up and removed from the site for effective control. This limits the effectiveness of manualcontroltosmallareasandtoplantssmallenoughtobepulledandcarriedbytheaverage worker. WeeddensitiesintheMaunaKeaScienceReservearelowenough,atlessthan0.1%cover(26),that hand pulling is feasible for most species. The time required to pull the occasional weed is P a g e 47 | 84 insignificantcomparedtothetimerequiredtotravelthroughouttheMKSR.Newspeciesdetected inthisareaarelikelytobecontrolledbyhand‐pulling. The nineteen‐acre Halepōhaku parcel is more densely vegetated. Monthly removal projects by volunteershavebeeneffectiveatreducingthecoverofcertainbroadleafweedsinaportionofthis area.Herbicidesareneverthelesslikelytoberequiredtoachievecompleteweedcontrol. Herbicides Herbicides become necessary when manual/mechanical control is ineffective, or has become inadequateortoocostlytocontinue.Thehighcostofhaulingwaterupthemountainincreasesthe relativecostofherbicidesprayingonUHManagedLands.Nevertheless,herbicideuseisexpected tocomplementmanualcontrolintheHalepōhakuareaandtheMaunakeaAccessRoadfrom9,200 ft to approximately 12,000 ft elevation. Herbicides will primarily be used to control established, widespreadweeds.Incipient(new)weedsmaybesprayedwhenlarge,dense,ormaturepatchesof plants are discovered. Treatment, follow‐up monitoring, and retreatments will be scheduled to achievemaximumefficacyandtopreventfuturegenerationsfromgoingtoseed.Wherecontinuous vegetationcovermustberemoved,arestorationplanwillbeinplacetosystematicallyreplacethe weedswithnativegrassesandshrubs. An extensive literature search identified little information regarding special considerations of herbicide use at high elevation, and nothing to indicate that their use on Maunakea will be unusually problematic. Roads and natural areas are maintained in other high elevation (5,000‐ 10,000ft)sitesusingthesamesuiteofherbicidesrecommendedinthisplan(27).Allrecommended herbicides in this document are low‐volatile formulations, designed to prevent rapid evaporation anddriftoftheactiveingredients.Additivesareavailabletofurtherreducevolatilizationanddrift. While it is recognized that the microbial breakdown of active ingredients is slowed by dry, cold conditions,otherherbicidesarerapidlybrokendownthroughphotolytic(sunlight)pathways.The productlabels,legaldocumentswhichdetailuserequirements,containnowarningsorprohibitions foruseincold,dry,conditionsorathighelevations. INVERTEBRATES Control methods for arthropods and mollusks vary depending on the species being controlled or the habitat they occupy. Arthropods are often cryptic or difficult to locate and pest control techniques have evolved to address the variety of life forms and situations that are commonly encountered.Belowisageneraldescriptionofcontroloptionsforthepriorityarthropodslistedin theprevioussection. Ants Ants can be controlled with baits (often species specific) or application of general purpose insecticides. Baits have the advantage of low pesticide use and target‐specificity. In situations wherebaitsareunsuitableforaparticularspecies,orantsaretobeexcludedfromaparticulararea orstructure,residualpesticide“barriers”canbeemployed. P a g e 48 | 84 Antbaitsconsistofanattractivefooditem(thebaitmatrix)lacedwithasmallquantityofpesticide (theactiveingredient).Onlyaportionofworkerantsactivelyforageforfood.Theseforagerants retrieve the baits for consumption by the rest of the colony, either physically carrying the food items,orbycarryingtheliquidcomponentofthebaitintheircrop3.Asnestmatesareencountered, foraging ants will share the contents of their crop, thus spreading the food (and the active ingredient)throughoutthecolony. Bait matrices are often different for different species and usually feature a carbohydrate, lipid or protein‐based attractant depending on the feeding habits of the target species. Some attractants requiretheuseofaninertcarriertofacilitateapplication.Thedegreeofattractiontoabaitmatrix determinesthelevelofuptakeoftheactiveingredient. The active ingredient usually affects all ants in a similar manner regardless of the ant’s feeding preferences.However,onlyasmallgroupofpesticidesaresuitableforuseinantbaits.Theymust be non‐repellent, slow acting and remain toxic even after substantial serial dilution via food sharing.Onceanantbeginstobecomeaffectedbytheinsecticide,shequarantinesherselffromthe restofthecolonyandceasestosharefood. Residual and contact insecticides are less specific and affect all arthropods, including native and non‐target species in a similar manner. These are useful for ant species that are not attracted to baitsaswellasabarrierthatpreventsfurtherlateralspread. Wasps Somewaspspeciesareextremelyinvasiveworldwide.ThetwomostwidespreadaretheGerman (Vespula germanica) and common (Vespula vulgaris) wasp. On Management lands the western (Vespula pensylvanica) wasp is occasionally observed. All three species are often called “yellowjackets”.Manywaspspeciesaresocialinsects,livingtogetherinacentralnestandworking together for defense and food gathering. Unlike ants, a substantial portion of wasps in a single colonyaresexuallyreproductive.Thisincreasesthedifficultyofcontrollingthesespecies.Adirect treatmentofthenestisoftenthemosteffectivecontrolmethod.Pesticidescanbeappliedasadust oraerosolthroughnestentrances,effectivelytreatingallcolonymembers.Controlortreatmentof waspnestsshouldbeconductedinlateafternoonswhenalladultshavereturnedtothenest.Due totheextremelyaggressivenatureofthesespeciesandthepotentialforseriousinjurytohumans, largernestsshouldbetreatedbyprofessionalpestcontrollers. Baitshave alsobeenusedagainstsomewaspspecies (28),however,successfuldeploymentisonly possibleduringperiodsofpeakproteinconsumptionandthismaybedifficultonMaunakea. Spiders Spidersareadiversegroupofarthropodswithover40,000speciesknowntoscience.Almostall spidersarepredatorsofotherarthropodsandinvertebrates.Notallspidersspinwebs,butmany doso.Somespecieshavetheabilitytosurviveformonthswithoutfoodaslongasasourceofwater isavailable (29).Theeffectofpesticidesonspiderscanbesubstantiallydifferentfromtheeffectsof thesamecompoundoninsects. 3Allantsareliquidfeeders,solidparticlesarenoteatenordigested. P a g e 49 | 84 Controlmethodsforspidersfocusontreatmentofwebsandharborswithresidualchemicals.Some micro‐encapsulated synthetic pyrethroids (eg, lambda‐cyhalothrin) appear to be more effective againstspidersthanflowableoremulsifiablesyntheticpyrethroids. Beetles Coleoptera (beetles) are one of the most diverse insect groups known to science. Depending on species, they can be detrivores, herbivores, predators, fungivores, parasites, dung‐feeders or frugivores.Controlmethodsforbeetlesarejustasdiverseasbeetlesthemselvesandwillneedto bedevelopedonacase‐by‐casebasisasnewspeciesareencountered. Horn and Stable Flies Horn(Haematobiairritans)andstableflies(Stomoxyscalcitrans)(Family:Muscidae)andassociated speciesareusuallyfoundincloseproximitytofarmanimalssuchascows,horsesanddogs.They arealsopestsofpeople,adultsfeedingbetween20and40timesadayonfreshmanureorblood. Theybitehumansandcanbevectorsforofdiseasesandparasites.Thelarvalstagesliveindungor rotting material and the adults live in close proximity to their animal hosts. Controlmethods for hornfliesincludetreatmentofthehostanimal,avisualattractant(boxtrap),contactpesticidesand orinsecticidessuchassyntheticpyrethroids. Centipedes Thelargecentipede(Scolopendrasubspinipes)isoneofthreecentipedesinHawai‘iandtheonlyone of medical importance (30). Although solitary creatures, the females guard any eggs they lay until theyhatch.Thevenom,carriedinthejaws,isfastactingandusedtosuppresspreyitems.When humansarebitten,thevenomcancausearangeofreactionsfrommildswellingoftheimmediate areatosubstantialswellingoftheentirelimb.LargeCentipedespreferdarkandmoistplacesfor harbor.Controlofthisspeciesisgenerallyaccomplishedbysprayingpotentialharbors(cracksand crevices)witharesidualpesticide. Mollusks Terrestrialmollusksaregreatatadaptingtotheirenvironment.Thesnailsslimeprotectsagainst evaporation, and when the weather becomes too dry, they look for a suitable hiding place Most slugswilleatdetritusincludingleaves,earthworms,andinvertebrates.Theycanalsobecarriersof parasites such as Angiostrongylus cantenosis (Rat Lung Worm). Control methods for Mollusks includebiologicalcontrolandmolluscicidewithmetaldehydeastheactiveingredient. SiteandSpeciesPriorities When operating within the constraints of resource limitations, decision makers will need to prioritizeresponsestoaccountforavailabilityoffinitehumanandeconomicresources.Somesites withinthemanagementareahavegreatercultural,aestheticorenvironmentalvaluesthanothers. Additionally,theimpactsofsomeinvasivespeciesarelikelytobegreaterthanothers.Prioritizing which species to control on which site should therefore be determined by both factors. Relative priorities could be assigned to site and species combinations using numerical or non‐parametric means(Table4.1).Thus,aparticularspeciesmaybeacontrolpriorityinahigh‐valuehabitatand P a g e 50 | 84 notacontrolpriorityinalow‐valuehabitat.Forinvasiveplants,theHawai‘iWeedRiskAssessment scorecouldbeusedinlieuofrankorderscores. Impactofinvasivespecies Sitepriority Veryhigh(5) High(4) Medium(3) Low(2) Verylow(1) veryhigh(5) 25 20 15 10 5 high(4) 20 16 12 8 4 medium(3) 15 12 9 6 3 Low(2) 10 8 6 4 2 Verylow(1) 5 4 3 2 1 Table4.1.Notionalrepresentationofusingrank‐ordersofsiteprioritiesandinvasivespeciesimpacts toallocateresources.(acommitmenttoeradicateveryhighimpactspeciesortopreserveveryhigh prioritysitesmightover‐ridescoringpriorities). Established invasive plants and their known locations are presented in Table 3.1. Many of the established weeds are grasses and herbs, and are found in dense, mixed‐species patches in disturbedareas.This makesasite‐specificapproachtocontrolmorepracticalthan anindividual speciesapproach.Thesiteplansthatfollowdescribethegeneralmethodstobeusedtosuppress weedsinadefinedarea,anddefinethemanagementgoalforeacharea.Individualsorsmallgroups ofplantsfoundoutsideoftheseareasareconsideredsatellitepopulations,andmaybetreatedas incipientspecieswiththeirowncontrolplan. Some sites have greater environmental, aesthetic or cultural values, determined by their level of ecologicalintegrity,uniquehabitattype,byculturalsignificanceoraestheticvalue.Thisinfluences the level and type of control that may be applied to invasive species as well as the control objectives.Asageneralprinciple,higherprioritysitesshouldbemanagedtoachievegreaterlevels ofculturalsignificanceorvalues,environmentalintegrity,aestheticappeal. Very High Priority Sites SiteswithMaunakeasilversword(Argyroxiphiumsandwicensespp.sandwicense)(31), Wēkiubug(Nysiuswekiuicola)habitat(32). Maunakea silversword is an endangered species unique to the Maunakea area. The wēkiu bug, whileithasbeenremovedasacandidateforendangeredspecieslisting,isemblematicofMaunakea environmentalconditions.Anyintroducedplantsoranimalsinproximitytothesespeciesorwithin theirhabitatcanpotentiallycauseharmtotheirsurvival.Additionally,somecontrolmethodscould P a g e 51 | 84 also harm protected species. These sites must be carefully managed to ensure these species are preserved.Selectionofcontrolmethodsmusttakeaccountofanypossibleimpactonthesurvival ofeitherMaunakeasilverswordorwēkiubugs. High Priority Sites AstronomyPrecinct(Maunakeasummit), LakeWai‘au(notUHmanaged). Both the summit and Lake Wai‘au are unique habitats with immense cultural, ecological and aesthetic values. Maintaining the integrity of these sites is a high priority. The virtual lack of vegetationatthesummitallowsforincreaseduseofherbicidecontrolmethodsastheriskofnon‐ target impacts is very low, although cultural concerns over any management activities are substantial.However,thesummitareaandthewēkiubughabitatsover‐lapandextremecaremust be taken with insecticide use which should be restricted to non‐wēkiu areas and immediately adjacenttobuildings.InvasivespeciescontroleffortsatLakeWai‘auareconductedincollaboration withthemanagingagency,however,theOfficeofMaunaKeaManagementrecognizesthecultural importance, its attractiveness to invasive arthropods, and the unique ecological nature of this waterbody. Medium Priority Sites Pu‘upōhakucrater(notUH‐managed), ScienceReserve. The broader Mauna Kea Science Reserve (11,228‐acres) represents the majority of the entire Management Area and the management of this zone is a central part of the overall management strategy.ThePu‘upōhakucratercontainsanephemerallakethatformspartoftheMaunaKeaIce AgeNaturalAreaReserve,howeveritissurroundedbylandsmanagedbytheOfficeofMaunaKea Management. The Office will work in collaboration with the Hawai‘i Division of Forestry and Wildlifeinthemanagementofinvasivespeciesonthissite. Low Priority Sites AccessRoadCorridor, Halepōhaku. Both the Road Corridor and the Halepōhaku sites have lower cultural and ecological importance than the remainder of the Management Area. Both sites experience heavy human use and are impacted by a suite of common weedy introduced plant and animal species. The importance of these sites are more strategic in nature – both being potential vectors for the spread of existing introduced species to other parts of the Management Area. Invasive species management P a g e 52 | 84 objectivesatthesesitesaretopreventexistingspeciesfromspreadingratherthanmaintainingor restoringecologicalintegrity. Very Low Priority Sites Neighboring lands, access road between the Saddle Road (Daniel K. Inouye Hwy) and Halepōhaku. TheOfficeofMaunaKeaManagementdoesnotmanageneighboringlandsortheroadleadingfrom theSaddleRoadtoHalepōhaku.However,theseareasarepotentialvectorsfortheintroductionof invasivespecies.Duetothis,theOfficemaintainsaninterestincollaboratingwithneighboringland managersinordertoreducetheserisks. InvasiveSpeciesControlPlans Biological surveys conducted over the years have provided baseline inventories of introduced plantsandarthropods.Thecurrentinventoryofplantsisfairlycomplete,whilethatforarthropods, duetotheirsheerdiversitymayneverbecompletelyunderstood. Theinventoriesshowthatalimitednumberofintroducedspecieshavebeenconsistentlyrecorded overanumberofyears,andarethereforeconsidered“established”species.Theyappeartohave naturalized,reproductivepopulationswithintheUHManagedLands.Asacommunity,theplants are abundant, disrupt native plant regeneration, and provide food and habitat for non‐native arthropods.Littleisknownaboutthelifehistoryofmuchofthearthropodcommunity. Alloftheplants,andmanyofthearthropodspeciesareabundantatlowerelevationsonMaunakea, andsomearefoundisland‐wide.Despitetheappearanceofastablepopulation,someofthesemay only exist at high elevations through continuous re‐introduction from more a productive populationdownslope,knownasa“rescueeffect.”Thepracticalconsiderationsarethesame.Most of these species will never be permanently eradicated and are likely to require regular control effortformanyyears. ESTABLISHED PLANT SPECIES AwrittencontrolplanwillbepreparedforeachManagementZonewithintheManagementArea. Following is a general description of the state of invasive plant species in these zones and recommendationsforfuturecontrolstrategies. Halepōhaku Halepōhaku is situated just below the treeline, approximately 9,500 ft. in the māmane‐ (Sophora chrysophylla) dominated subalpine woodlands. The subalpine woodlands at Halepōhaku are noticeably more densely vegetated, and more diverse, than the alpine zones. Ground cover is clusteredatthebaseofmāmanetrees,withconsiderablebaresoilandrockinbetween.Common P a g e 53 | 84 native grasses include Hawai‘i bentgrass (Agrostis sandwicensis, lovegrass (Eragrostis spp), and alpine hairgrass (Deschampsia nubigena). None are as common as the invasive needlegrass (Nassella cernua) and ripgut grass (Bromus diandrus). Common native shrubs include pūkiawe (Styphelia tameiameiae) and ‘āweoweo (Chenopodium oahuense). Many native plant species historically recorded in the area are now rare (‘ōhelo, Vaccinium reticulatum; pilo, Coprosma montana)orcannolongerbefound(makou,Ranunculushawaiensis;‘a‘ali‘i,Dodoneaviscosa),while thelistofinvasivespecieshassteadilygrown(2;26). Althoughtheendangeredpalila(Loxioidesbailleui)hasnotfrequentlybeenobservedatHalepōhaku formanyyears,theareaisdesignatedcriticalhabitatfortherecoveryofthespecies.Replacement of invasive annual plants with native perennials is expected to support Māmane regeneration throughreducedcompetitionforwaterandnutrients.Successfulrecoveryofallspeciesnativeto the area may be dependent on the ungulate removal planned by DOFAW following fence completion. The first priority within the Halepōhaku parcel is to suppress invasive weeds in all high traffic areas,tolimitthetransportofseedstothesummitbyvisitorsandstaff.Thisisaccomplishedby designating a weed control buffer around all buildings, walkways, and parking lots in the area. Workwillprogressoutwardinstagesuntila25‐yardbuffer,approximately12.5‐acres,isachieved. Weedtolerancelevelsinthe25‐yardbufferarequitelow.Asthisareabecomesmoremanageable, workwillintensifyintheremainingsevenacresoftheparcel.Weedremovalwillbebalancedby revegetationworkdescribedintherestorationplan,currentlyunderdevelopment. Completeeradication of allweeds at alltimesis unlikelytobeachieved. Acceptabletoleranceor thresholdlevelsaremeasuredbyplantcoverinrandomplotsatleastonce(ideallytwice)peryear. Maintenance thereafter will be scheduled to keep weed cover below these tolerance levels. Zero tolerance for mature weeds will be allowed immediately adjacent to thoroughfares. Weed toleranceforthe25‐yardbufferislessthan1%coverformaturebroadleafplants,andlessthan5% totalinvasivespeciescover.Grasscover,includinginvasivegrasses,maybemaintainedatahigher density to control dust and erosion at the site until alternative cover is established. The managementgoalistoreplaceallinvasivegrasseswithnativespecies. Techniqueswillincludecutting,handpulling,andapplyingherbicide,thelatterbytrainedstaffor contractors.Workwillprogressincrementallytoallowdensepatchesofvegetationtobesearched for native plants. Rare plants (including “common” native plants that are locally rare) will be documentedandvisiblymarkedtopreventaccidentalimpacts. Herbicideuseintheareaisexpectedtobelimitedtofoliarsprayofglyphosate(Roundup™)with anaddedsurfactant.Theadditiveisrecommendedtopenetrateleafsurfacescoveredwithdense trichomes (hairs) typical of weeds in the area. Triclopyr may be added for improved efficacy or usedseparatelyoncertainweeds.Stubbornorrapidlyregeneratingweedsmayrequiretheuseof imazapyr or aminopyralid, formulations with some soil residual activity. Use of these herbicides willbelimitedinscopeandconductedprimarilyintheinitialtreatmentphase.Herbicideswillnot beusedwithinfivemetersofendangeredplants. P a g e 54 | 84 In 2012, monthly volunteer weed control efforts were organized to begin to remove invasive broadleaf herbs, including fireweed (Senecio madagascariensis), telegraph weed (Heterotheca grandifolia),mullein(Verbascumspp.)fromaroundparkinglotsandbuildings.Grasseswereleftin placetoholdthesoil,andtoavoidimpactstonativespeciesgrowingamongsttheinvasivegrasses. Volunteerweedpullswillbemovedintotheseven‐acre,secondpriorityarea(areasbeyonda25‐ yardbuffersurroundingfacilities).Thissecondpriorityareaconsistsofapproximately4‐acresthat separatetheHalepōhakusupportfacilitiesfromtheVisitorInformationStation;andanadditional 1.5‐acres due east of the Visitor Information Station. Progress will be gradual to allow time for nativespeciestogainafootholdintheclearedareas,aprocesswhichmaybeaidedbybroadcast seeding and outplanting common native species, according to the restoration plan under development.OMKMalsohasconcurrencewithDOFAWtoconductmanualweedcontrolinsidethe DOFAWmanaged2.25‐acresilverswordexclosure.Thevolunteerprogramprovidesameaningful, hands‐on experience on the mountain for members of the Big Island community, builds relationships,andincreasesawarenessoftheOMKMmissionandprogramareas. The1.5‐acreconstructionstagingareaisoutsideofthe25‐yardbuffer.Thisstaging areaistobe treated as a quarantine area with all introduced plants removed and the site treated prophylactically with residual pesticides to prevent establishment of any arthropods that may inadvertentlybecarriedwithconstructionsupplies. Summit Access Road The lower portion of Summit Access Road traverses the alpine shrubland. Roadsides are dotted with the native nohoanu (Geranium cuneatum ssp. hololeucum), pāwale (Rumex giganteus) and pūkiawe (Styphelia tameiameiae), and as well as introduced fireweed (Senecio madagascariensis), sheepsorrel(Rumexacetosella),andcommonmullein(Verbascumthapsus).Plantdensitiesdecline rapidly with increasing elevation through the alpine grassland (grass desert) and alpine stone desert.Theupperportionsoftheroadarebarren,withoccasionalnativena‘ena‘e(Dubautiaspp.), pūkiawe,nativegrasses,orintroducedspecies. WhileOMKMhasauthoritytomanageonlytheroadandtheeasementtotheeastsideoftheroad for much of its length, management of weeds on only one side of the road is clearly impractical. OMKMistocollaboratewiththeNaturalAreaReservemanagementtojointlymonitorandcontrol weedsthroughoutthesharedlengthofroad. Thepurposeofweedcontrolalongtheaccessroadistopreventestablishmentofnewweeds,and tohalttheprogressionofestablishedweedstohigherelevations.Theroadand400yardeasement together comprise 700‐acres, an area that may be too large to keep weed free. The majority of weedsarelikelytobefoundclosetotheroad.Roadsidesareidealweedestablishmentsites,dueto regular disturbance from road grading and traffic. Propagule pressure is high, with weeds hitchhiking on every variety of vehicle. Seeds that have successfully attached to vehicles may be shaken off as the vehicle traverses the unpaved portion of road eg. attached to dried soil that P a g e 55 | 84 becomes detached from vibration. Successfully established roadside weeds reproduce to become hitchhikersonceagainandaretransportedupslope. Theprimaryobjective forthisManagement Zone isthesuppressionofweedswithinten yardsof the formed roadway. Work will progress from high to low elevation. As satisfactory control of established weed species is achieved in this area, the control zone will be enlarged to include additionallandsfurtherfromtheroad.Increasingdistancefromtheroadisexpectedtoprovidea diminishing return on effort. Despite relatively low weed densities, it is unlikely that the entire widthcanberegularlymaintained. Weedswillbehandpulledwherefeasible(athighelevation),andsprayedwithherbicideasthesize and density of patches increase (below the Science Reserve). Herbicide options are the same as thosepresentedforuseintheHalepōhakuarea.Glyphosatesprayswithanadded surfactant are generally efficacious for the known weed species in the. Imazapyr and aminopyralid have some residualactionandmaybeusedtodecreasetreatmentfrequency. The Access Road has mostly been formed in a manner to reduce the grade to a level suitable for four wheel drive vehicles. This results in a series of side‐cut and raised road sections. This presentsoperationalchallengestoweedcontrol.Thesteep,loosesidescannotbesafelytraversed to cut, pull, or spot‐spray individual plants. At lower elevations, invasive and native species are thicklyinterspersed,makingbroadcastsprayingfromatruckdifficult.Weedcontrolintheseareas will require resources to develop practical control techniques. OMKM will work with BIISC, the University of Hawai‘i agricultural extension program (CTAHR), and the Hawai‘i Department of Transportationtodevelopeffectiveandappropriateprocedures. The Mauna Kea Science Reserve (MKSR) TheMKSRincludesonealpineplantcommunity,thealpinestonedesertfromapproximately11,000 ft to the summit, 13780 ft (33) . Perhaps due to historical grazing by introduced ungulates, little distinction can currently be observed between the two alpine plant communities described by Mueller‐Dumbois and Fosberg(34), alpine grass desert and alpine stone desert), other than an incrementallygreaterdensityofplantsatthelowerelevations(26).TheentireMKSRischaracterized byverylowdensitiesoftwonativegrasses,Hawaiianbentgrass(Agrostissandwicensis)andpiliuka (Trisetum glomeratum), the shrubs pūkiawe (Styphelia tameiameiae) and ‘ōhelo (Vaccinium reticulatum), and occasional ferns, including Douglas’ bladderfern (Cystopteris douglasii, a candidateendangeredspecies)andkalamoho(Pellaeaternifolia).Perhapsmorecommonthanany vascular plants, are mosses, lichens, and algae growing in protected sites. ‘Āhinahina (the Maunakea silversword, Argyroxiphium sandwicense ssp. sandwicense), a federally endangered species,isfoundwithinfencedunitsinthisarea. AfewestablishedinvasiveplantsaredispersedatlowdensitiesthroughouttheUHManagedLands. Hairy cat’s ear (Hypochaeris radicata), for example, is likely to be found in sheltered sites throughout the MKSR. Staff recently found approximately one plant for every mile hiked in the MKSR. Regular surveys of the entire 11,288‐acre MKSR to remove plants at that density may be P a g e 56 | 84 impractical. Control of widespread, low density species is therefore focused at sensitive sites, whichincludehistoricpropertiesandrareplantlocations.Thesesitesareregularlymonitoredby trained archaeologists and biologists, respectively. Like any visitors, scientists may also inadvertentlyintroduceinvasivespecies.Byincludingweedcontrolwiththeirscheduledactivities, OMKMcandetectandcontrolweedsatmorethan263well‐distributedsites,travelingoveralarge portion of the MKSR without adding a significant level of disturbance. This approach mimics the SpecialEcologicalAreaorWeedControlAreaBuffersystemsusedbyotherconservationagencies inHawai‘i(4;22;35).Itmaybeunique,however,inusinghistoricproperties,inadditiontohighvalue naturalresources,asfociforweedcontrol. The Astronomy Precinct All of the Astronomy Precinct is within the alpine stone desert. Certain invasive plant species, including hairy cat’s ear (Hypochaeris radicata), fireweed (Senecio madagascariensis) and rescue grass (Bromus catharticus), are found more commonly in cracks, drainage ditches, and roadsides within the astronomy precinct than elsewhere in the MKSR(26). It is unknown whether the frequencyofinvasiveplantsisduetohigherratesofintroductionsoragreatervarietyofsheltered sites,or,likely,both. Invasiveplantsinthevicinityofroadsandobservatoriesremainsufficientlysparsethattheycanbe removed by regular hand‐pulling. Ranger patrols already accomplish this task as part of their routine,andreportthespecies,andnumberofinvasiveplantspulledintheirdailyrangerreport. Althoughtheefforthassofarbeenlimitedtofireweed,trainingisplannedtoincreasecompetency todistinguishthelimitednumberofnativeandinvasivespecies.Distinctworkareaswillbeclearly defined and named to improve staff ability to schedule and treat all developed areas known or likelytohaveinvasiveweeds. ESTABLISHED ARTHROPODS Unlikeinvasiveplants,controlmethodsforinvasivearthropodsareoftenspecies‐specificandlittle commonality exists between the management approaches for different species. For this reason, arthropodmanagementplansmustbepreparedbyspeciesfortheentireManagementArea.Some commonalitybetweencontrolmethodsforspeciesfoundinandaroundstructuresmayexist,and these may be different from control methods in the natural environment. For this reason, the managementplansmayoutlinedifferentapproachesforthesetwohabitattypes. A total of 209 arthropods have been detected within the Management Area as a result of various invertebrate surveys (36‐45). Of these, many pose little or no threat to human health or the environment. However, fifteen species pose threats to human health and safety and are closely associated with humans (Table 4.2). These species will be controlled within and near facilities (buildings and other structures) wherever possible. Thirty four arthropod species have been classifiedaslow‐levelthreatstoecosystems(Table4.3).Ofthese,seventeenspecies(mostlyvery smallwasps)aredependentonhostplantswhichthemselvesareintroduced.Asthesehostplants P a g e 57 | 84 are controlled, the associated arthropods will not be able to survive. The remaining species are spiders (11 species) and beetles (6 species) – mostly common “weedy” species that are globally ubiquitousandwidespread.Controllingthesespeciesintheenvironmentisdifficultandgenerally thenon‐targetimpactsofcontrolmethodsareanunacceptablecompromise.Thesespecieswillbe controlledwithinandnearfacilities(buildingsandotherstructures)whereverpossiblethrougha generalpestcontrolprogram. Table4.2.ArthropodspeciesdetectedwithintheManagementAreathatposeahumanhealthrisk. CommonName Germancockroach Americancockroach scientificname Blattellagermanica unknown non‐bitingmidge Chironomussp. midge unknown mosquito honeybee Europeanpaperwasp redbrownpaperwasp westernyellowjacket hornet/wasps bloodfeedinghornfly bloodfeedinghornfly housefly fly bitingmidge unknown Apismellifera Polistesdominus Polistesolivaceus Vespulapensylvanica unknown Haematobiairritans Stomoxyscalcitrans unknown unknown Forcipomyiaspp. Feasibilityof ControlType control sanitation,pesticidesorbaits Good sanitation,pesticidesorbaits Good sanitation(removewater sources) Good sanitation(removewater sources) Good sanitation(removewater sources) Good swarmtraps Good traps,pesticides moderate traps,pesticides moderate traps,pesticides moderate traps,pesticides moderate traps,pesticides Low traps,pesticides Low traps,pesticides Low traps,pesticides Low testicides Low Table4.3.ArthropodspeciesdetectedwithintheManagementAreathatposeanenvironmental threat. CommonName braconidwasp braconidwasp braconidwasp braconidwasp braconidwasp funnelweaver sacspider Scientificname Apantelesspp. Braconspp. Chelonusblackburni Ontsirapalliates Unknown Unknown Unknown ControlType removehostplants removehostplants removehostplants removehostplants removehostplants sanitation,pesticide sanitation,pesticide Feasibilityof control low low low low low low low P a g e 58 | 84 sacspider groundspider stealthygroundspider sheetwebspider sheetwebspider Meriolaarcifera Urozelotesrusticus Unknown Erigonespp. Lepthyphantestenuis sanitation,pesticide sanitation,pesticide sanitation,pesticide sanitation,pesticide sanitation,pesticide low low low low low jumpingspider cobwebweavers spider drugstorebeetle groundbeetle groundbeetle groundbeetle groundbeetle redleggedhambeetle ichneumonidwasp inchneumonidwasp hoverflyparasite ichneumonidwasp ichneumonidwasp ichneumonidwasp ichneumonidwasp ichneumonidwasp inchneumonidwasp ichneumonidwasp ichneumonidwasp leafcuttingbee ghostant Unknown Unknown Unknown Unknown Agonummuelleri Laemostenuscomplanatus Trechusobtusus Unknown Necrobiarufipes Calliephialtesgrapholithae Diadegmablackburni Diplazonlaetatorius Hyposoterexiguae Ichneumoncupitus Ichneumonlaetus Ichneumonspp. Meteoruspurpuripennis Pristomerushawaiiensis Trathalaflavoorbitalis unknown Megachiletimberlakei Tapinomamelanocephalum sanitation,pesticide sanitation,pesticide sanitation,pesticide pesticides pesticides pesticides pesticides pesticides pesticides removehostplants removehostplants removehostplants removehostplants removehostplants removehostplants removehostplants removehostplants removehostplants removehostplants removehostplants removehostplants baits low low low low low low low low low low low low low low low low low low low low low high white‐footedant plagiolepisant cardiocondylaant Technomyrmexalbipes Plagiolepisalluaudi Cardiocondylakagutsuchi pesticideorbaits pesticideorbaits pesticideorbaits high high high HIGH‐PRIORITY ARTHROPOD THREATS Three high‐priority arthropod pest species (all ants) have been detected within the Management Area: Tapinoma melanocephalum, Technomyrmex albipes, Plagiolepis alluaudi, and Cardiocondyla kagutsuchi.ThelocationsthesespecieshavebeendetectedatareshowninFigure4.2.T.albipes has recently been reclassified, and most taxonomists now believe “albipes” is a group of four distinct,closelyrelatedspecies(vitiensis,albipes,difficilusandpallipes).Themostcommonofthese onHawai‘iislandisT.vitiensis.TheonlyestablishedantintheManagementAreaisCardiocondyla kagutsuchiatHalepōhaku,allotherantspecieshaveonlybeendetectedinsingleinstancesandnot foundinestablishedpopulations. P a g e 59 | 84 Figure4.2.AntdetectionsintheManagementArea. P a g e 60 | 84 Each established species will require a separate management plan as control methods differ substantially between species. Tapinoma melanocephalum a tropical structural pest, attracted to baitscontainingcarbohydrateattractants,whileCkagutsuchiandT“albipes”arenotattractedtoa particularbaittype. P a g e 61 | 84 Section5.RapidResponse Background TheMaunaKeaScienceReserveandHalepōhakuare11,288‐acreand19‐acre(respectively)areas oflandleasedbytheUniversityofHawai‘ifromtheStateofHawai‘iforuseasascientificcomplex. Management is guided by the 2009 Mauna Kea Comprehensive Management Plan (2009) which provides the policy framework for the responsible stewardship and use of University‐managed landsonMaunakeathroughto2020.TheComprehensiveManagementPlanaddressestheoverall managementofcultural,natural,researchandrecreationalvaluesoftheprecinct.Themanagement policies for the natural values of the Mauna Kea Science Reserve are outlined in the Mauna Kea NaturalResourcesManagementPlan(2009)whichformsacomponentplanoftheComprehensive ManagementPlan. The following agencies have jurisdiction, responsibility or roles relating to the detection and managementofinvasivespeciesintheMaunaKeaScienceReserveandHalepōhaku: TheOfficeofMaunaKeaManagementhasoverallresponsibilityformanagingtheMaunaKea ScienceReservesubjecttoapprovalbyHawai‘iDepartmentofLandandNaturalResources, The University of Hawai‘i leases the Management Areas from the State of Hawai‘i (or holds easements), identifies policy through the Master Plan (2000), and provides institutional supporttoOMKM, TheDepartmentofLandsandNaturalResourcesisthelandownerandreviewsalllanduse proposalstodeterminetheappropriatelevelofpermitting,approveplansorpermits,orrefer theproposaltotheBoardofLandandNaturalResourcesforaction, Hawai‘i Division of Forests and Wildlife provides technical advice on issues, manages the MaunaKeaIceAgeNaturalAreaReserve,andhasregulatoryauthorityforwildlife, TheMaunaKeaManagementBoardisavolunteer,community‐basedentitywithasustained directvoiceforthemanagement,andapproveOMKMprojectsandplans,and Hawaiʻi Department of Agriculture Pesticides Branch administers the state pesticide regulationswhichgoverntheuseofpesticidesinthestateofHawai‘i. Outline This section contains a detailed emergency response plan (ERP) for incursions of invasive arthropodsorplantsdiscoveredintheMaunakeamanagementarea.Thedocumentisdividedinto fivepartswhichcorrespondtothedifferentstagesofaresponse: Pre‐incursionplanning–ThegenerallevelofpreparednessrecommendedfortheOfficeofMauna KeaManagementisdescribedinthissection.Itincludesthetasksthatshouldbeundertakenbefore anincursionisdetected. P a g e 62 | 84 Initialdetectionandresponse–Thissectionoutlinesthelogicalstepsandlinesofauthorityfor theinitialinvestigationandtheprocessfordecisionmaking. Guidelinesfortheinitialdelimitingsurvey–Onceanincursionhasbeendetected,itisimportant todeterminehowlargethepestpopulationis.Oftenasingledetectionisfollowedbydiscoveryof otherpopulationsofthesamespecies.Theextentoftheinvasionisanimportantfactorindeciding the best course of action and provides the basis for estimating budgets and resources needed to managethesituation. Elements of a management plan – This section describes the essential elements of a plan to managethenewincursion. Organizational structure and reporting – The organizational structure and reporting relationshipsofstaffengagedinaresponsearelistedinthissection. Thisdocumentshouldbereviewedbefore,duringandafteranincursion. Pre‐IncursionPlanning There are four important issues that need to be addressed before an exotic species incursion is discovered: LEGISLATIVE POWER TO ACT TheDLNR‐approvedMaunaKeaMasterPlan(2000)andMaunaKeaComprehensiveManagement Plan(2009)identifytheUniversity’sresponsibilitiestoaddressinvasivespeciesissues,asdoesthe 1968 General Lease. Additional law and policy information is available at http://dlnr.hawaii.gov/hisc/info/policy/ . In addition, Maunakea is specifically identified as not exempt from State of Hawai‘i requirements to prepare an Environmental Assessment.(http://oeqc.doh.hawaii.gov/Shared%20Documents/Environmental_Council/Exempti on_Lists_By_Department/State_Agencies/University‐of‐Hawaii‐2001‐03‐14.pdf). This is interpreted to mean the Science Reserve. Hawaii Administrative Rules for lands zoned as Conservationidentifyrequirementsforobtainingplansorpermits. TheOfficeofMaunaKeaManagementshouldensurethatithasthepowersneededtoactpromptly on the discovery of a new invasive species, including use of appropriate pesticides or removal methods,powertoenteranyinfestedarea,andappropriatecertificationsforapplicationpersonnel. REGISTRATION AND PERMITS TO APPLY CONTROL CHEMICALS Registration of pesticides and applicators is the responsibility of the Hawai‘i Department of Agriculture(HDOA)andthefederalEnvironmentalProtectionAgency(EPA).Anypesticideusedin the United States must be registered with the EPA under the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and Rodenticide Act. Any EPA registered product must also be registered under state regulations before it can be legally used in Hawai‘i. Office of Mauna Kea Management field staff should be properly trained in the safe and effective use of any pesticide likely to be used in an emergency P a g e 63 | 84 response. Per the Mauna Kea Natural Resource Management Plan, pesticide application will be donebyindividualspossessingapesticideapplicatorlicenseissuedbytheHawai‘iDepartmentof AgriculturePesticidesBranch. AVAILABILITY OF CHEMICALS AND APPLICATION EQUIPMENT Appropriate chemicals, application equipment and personal protective wear (gloves, masks etc.) shouldbeon‐handinreadinessforarapidresponse.Theseitemsshouldbestoredinappropriate conditionsandproductexpirydatescheckedregularlytoensuretheyarereadyforuse.Sufficient stocksshouldbeonhandtotreataminimumof1‐acreinfestedbyanytargetspecies.Areasbelow the Science Reserve boundary requiring treatment larger than 1‐acre require additional DLNR approval,providingadditionaltimetoobtainresources(HAR§13‐5). ACCESS TO EMERGENCY FUNDS In many cases, the discovery of a new invasive species will require a response and resources not budgetedforinnormaloperatingfunds.TheOfficeofMaunaKeaManagementwillrequest,from theUniversityofHawai‘i,additionalfundsandhumanresourcesintheeventofanewincursion. InitialDetectionandResponse Whenasuspectedinvasivespeciesisreported,thegenericresponsetothisdetectionisoutlinedin Figure 1. During this part of the response, the Natural Resource Program (NRP) manager of the OfficeofMaunaKeaManagementseekstoconfirmtheidentityofthespeciesandobtainaninitial reportoftheextentoftheinfestation.Withthisinformation,theNRPmanagerwilldecidewhether toinvolvetheEmergencyResponseManagementCommittee(ERMC). BeforetheERMCmeetstodiscusstheincursiontheNRPmanagershouldbeginadelimitingsurvey andrestrictmovementofforriskitemsleavingtheinfestedarea.Theseriskitemsincludepotted plants,soilandaggregates,itemsthathavebeenincontactwiththeground,produce,hayorwood shavings (a common spill containment berm material), mulch and building supplies, earthmoving equipmentandothervehicles.Theriskitemslistmayneedtobereviseddependingonthespecies that has been detected and/or other site‐related factors such as activities being conducted in the infestedarea. THE EMERGENCY RESPONSE MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE TheERMCisastandingcommitteewithoversightofinvasivespeciesdetectionsforMaunakea.The committee advises and informs the Maunakea Management Board, has powers to authorize temporaryresourcesforimmediateresponseactivitiesandmakesdecisionsonhowtoproceed.A flowchart showing the flow of information on discovery of a new invasive species is shown in Figure 5.1, and options that the ERMC will consider is shown in Figure 5.2. The ERMC shall be comprisedofthefollowingpersons: 1. Chairperson,MaunaKeaManagementBoard 2. MembersoftheMaunakeaManagementBoardasrequired P a g e 64 | 84 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Delegate,OfficeofCoastalConservationLands(DepartmentofLandsandNaturalResources) BranchManager,DivisionofForestryandWildlife(ordelegate) Representative,KahuKūMauna Coordinator,BigIslandInvasiveSpeciesCommittee(ordelegate) OfficeofMaunaKeaManagementNaturalResourceManager[non‐voting] Aspecialistorspecialistsofthenewinvasiveorganism[non‐voting] Otherpersonsoradvisorsasdeemednecessarybythechair[non‐voting] P a g e 65 | 84 Detectioninthefieldisreportedby afieldofficer,memberofpublic. InformationprovidedtoNRP manager NRPmanager, assignsappropriatestaff togathermoreinformation,seeksadvice fromaspecialist. NRPmanagersendssamplesforexpert (nationalandoverseas)taxonomic identificationifdeemednecessary. Assignedstaffreturn tositeofdetectionfor preliminarysurvey,diagnosisofsituationand collectionofsamples.Securethesiteandapply localquarantineifrequired.ThenreporttoNRP manager. NoAction – Noemergencyresponseaction required.MaunaKeaManagement Boardadvisedofincidentinregular reporting NRPmanagertakesappropriateaction dependingonspeciesidentityandif required,informsERMCchair. Commencelocalquarantine,containment activities,delimitingsurvey.Preparereport forERMC Action– NRPmanagerinitiatesinitialresponse. ERMCscheduletomeetatearliest opportunity. ERMCdecidesonappropriate responseactionafterconsidering technicaladvisor’sreport. Figure5.1.Genericresponsetoasuspectedinvasivespeciesdetection. P a g e 66 | 84 ERMCmeettoconsidermanagementoptions Aggressivecontrol/containment Highinputs(objectivesdetermine budget) eradication Long‐termmanagement.Low inputs,(budgetdetermines objectives) Donothing Commenceactionsnecessary forimmediatecontainment anderadication.Conduct feasibilitystudy, Developmanagement planandbudget Developlongtermmanagement planandbudget.Implement plan Monitorsituationand reportanychangesto distributionorimpacts Notfeasible feasible Developeradication planandbudget Implementcontrolplan Monitoroutcomes againstobjectives Monitoroutcomes againstobjectives Successful Notsuccessful implementeradicationplan Successful Notsuccessful Monitoroutcomes againstobjectives Notsuccessful Nochangein status Significantchange instatus END standdownemergency response Continueplan standdown emergencyresponse successful Continueimplementation Figure5.2.DecisionflowchartusedbyERMCtodecideappropriatecourseofactionandmonitoroutcomes P a g e 67 | 84 ROLES AND RESPONSIBILITIES Abriefoutlineofthefunctionsandresponsibilitiesofpersonsinvolvedinanemergencyresponseis listedinthetablebelow. Table5.1.Rolesandresponsibilitiesofpersonsinvolvedintheemergencyresponse POSITION ROLESANDRESPONSIBILITIES UniversityofHawai‘i ProvidesfundingfortheEmergencyResponsePlan. MaunaKeaManagementBoard Overallapprovaloftheprogram. Discusses recommendations from the Technical Adviser(TA)afterdelimitingsurveyanddecideson furtheraction; Recommends overall strategy to the Mauna Kea ManagementBoard; AppointsOperationsManagerandFieldController; NaturalResourceProgrammanager LiaisonforOfficeofMaunaKeaManagement; TypicallyInitiatesresponseactions Specialist appointedbyandreportingtoERMC Collects samples and organizes identification of samples; Collectsinformation. EmergencyResponse ManagementCommittee (ERMC) OperationsManager appointed by Mauna Kea Management BoardonrecommendationofERMC ReportstoERMC; Managesday‐to‐dayfinances; Overseesfieldoperations; Checksresourcerequirements; Selectsandappointstheresponseteam(s); Briefs and trains response team(s) and Field ControllertogetherwithTechnicalAdviser. Conductsdelimitingsurvey; Submits report including response options, recommendationsandtentativebudgetstoERMC; Briefs and trains response team(s) and Field ControllertogetherwithOperationsManager; Provides technical advice to ERMC, Operations Manager,FieldController,operationalteams; TechnicalAdviser appointedbyERMC; reportstonobodytomakesurethat adviceremainsobjective; locatedasrequired; hastobearecognizedexpertonthe P a g e 68 | 84 particularspeciesortaxon. FinanceOfficer appointedbyERMCon recommendationofOperations Manager; locatedonsitefulltime; reportstoOperationsManager; FieldTeams Periodicallymonitorsoperations. Responsibleforadministrationandfinance. Logistics; Day‐to‐daycontroloffieldoperations; Liaiseswithdistrictstaffandstakeholders. Fieldactivitiessuchassurveys. reportstoOperationsManager. FieldController appointedbyOperationsManager; reporttoFieldController. The Specialist OMKMrangersareusuallythefirsttoinvestigateapossibleincursionafteritisreported.Itisthe role of the specialist to collect specimens for identification, dispatch them to a recognized expert andgatherinformationontheincursionandthespeciesdetectedfortheNRPmanager. Before leaving to investigate the suspect incursion, the Specialist should seek confirmation of the powersavailabletohimorher,specificallywhenitpertainstositeentry,quarantinedirectionsand preventingthemovementofriskitems. CollectingSpecimens The first step in managing a possible invasive species incursion is to know exactly which species hasbeendetected.Thismeansobtainingspecimensandhavingthemidentifiedbyanappropriate taxonomistandconfirmedbyareliableinstitution.Guidestocollectingspecimensareappended. SecuretheScene/Containment Invasivespeciescanspreadquicklyfromonesitetoanotherbyhuman‐mediatedmeans.Insects, plant seeds etc. can be concealed in produce, potted plants and other risk items which are transportedbypeopletoanewlocation.Preventingfurtherspreadatthisstageofanincursionis veryimportant.Ifitcanbeestablishedthatonlyasmallareaisinfested,preventingpublicaccessto theentiresiteisaverygoodsolution.Iftheinfestedsiteislarger,theSpecialistshouldensurethat peoplelivingorworkingwithintheinfested areadonot moveriskitemstootherlocations.Risk itemsshouldincludethefollowing: Soil,gravel,aggregatesorotherlandscapingmaterial, Anyitemthathasbeenincontactwithsoilformorethan24hours, Pottedplants,mulch,hay,firewood,thatchingandotherbuildingmaterials, P a g e 69 | 84 Earthmovingmachinery. The risk items list may need to be revised depending the species that has been detected and/or othersite‐relatedfactorssuchasindustriesoractivitiesbeingconductedintheinfestedarea.For example, ant colonies will disperse if the colony is disturbed. The Specialist should ensure that peoplelivingorworkinginorneartheinfestedareadonot,disturb,interfereorattempttotreat the insects or plants. If the infested area is small, it may be demarcated with “caution” or “quarantine”tape. GatherInformation Afterreturningfromtheinitialinvestigation,thespecialistshouldprepareashortsituationreport fortheNRPManagerwhichshouldincludethefollowinginformationasaminimum: theresultoftheidentification, picture(s)oftheinvasivespecies, dateanddetailsoffirstreport, sizeandlocationcoordinatesoftheinfestedarea, ifpossible,anindicationastohowtheorganismmayhavereachedthearea, Additionally, the specialist should compile available information (reports, journal articles, etc) aboutthespeciesincluding: potentialimpactsintermsof: o economicimpacts, o social(includinghumanhealth)impacts, o culturalimpacts, o environmentalimpactsandbiodiversity. expectedcostofexporttreatments, knowncontrolmeasuresandinadvertentimpacts. Oncethespeciesidentityhasbeenverified,adecisionneedstobemadeonhowtoprogress.The final decision on further action lies with the ERMC. If the invasive species is likely to cause unacceptableimpacts,theChairpersonappointsaTechnicalAdvisertoconductadelimitingsurvey and mobilizes the necessary funds. (Please note that the Specialist could fulfill this function if sufficientlyqualified). TheNRPManager establishesquarantinerestrictionsasrequired,andinclosecollaborationwith theERMCshouldbrieftheMaunaKeaManagementBoardontheincursion.Onceallpartieshave beenbriefed,theERMCshouldnotifystaffworkingwithintheManagementAreaoftheoccurrence ofthenewinvasivespeciesandwhattolookforandhow,whoandwheretoreportto.TheERMC shouldalsoappointacommunicationspecialisttodevelopacommunicationstrategy. P a g e 70 | 84 The Technical Advisor The NRP Manager, in consultation with the ERMC, may proceed with an emergency response or decide to take no further action. If proceeding with a response, a Technical Advisor will be appointedbytheERMCwithadvicefromNRPManager.TheTechnicalAdvisor’sroleistodelimit theinfestation,advisetheNRPManagerontrace‐forwardandtrace‐backactivities,andpreparea draft management plan. The Technical Advisor does not recommend a course of action as this decision is made by the ERMC. Rather he or she advises on the technical merits of proposed coursesofaction. DelimitingSurvey The immediate task of the Technical Advisor is to plan and implement a delimiting survey. Standardizedsurveillancemethodshavebeendevelopedandareappended.Thedelimitingsurvey is carried out by a survey team composed of the Technical Adviser, the Specialist, available field officersfromtheOfficeofMaunaKeaManagementandtheFieldOfficerwhoinitiallyreportedthe species.Thesizeofthesurveyteamswilldependontheexpectedareatobesurveyed.Additionally, one or more staff from the appropriate quarantine agency should be on hand specifically to coordinate and implement trace‐forward and trace‐back activities. The communication specialist should be involved in the delimiting survey and oversee media and public communication when necessary. Theobjectivesofthedelimitingsurveyare: Establishthebordersoftheinfestedarea, Gatherinformationfordecidingwhatactionsshouldfollow, To advise staff on trace‐forward and trace‐back activities in order to determine if there are moreinfestedareas,and Todetermineresourcesneeded. TheTechnicalAdviserensuresthatallitemsrequiredforthesurveyareavailable,suchas: Emergencyresponseplan, Amapofthearea, Notebooks,pens,pencils,markers, Digitalcamera,GPSunits,radioswithenoughbatteries, Fieldrecordsheets, Equipment: brush, pocket knife, spade, hand lens, specimen bottles, plastic bags in various sizes,70%alcoholsolution,torch,gloves;aspirator,forceps,and Firstaidkit. Thesurveystartsfromtheareawheretheincursionwasreported.Actionsincludedareto: identifypotentialusersofthesite,informthemofthesituation,discussactionstotakeandseek theircooperation, P a g e 71 | 84 establishexactlyhowandwhenthenewspeciesreachedthearea, monitorthespeedofdispersal, mapboundariesandestimatesizeoftheinfestedarea, identifysoil,aggregates, machinery,plants,plantproducts,orotherarticleswhosemovement outoftheinfestedareawouldneedtoberegulatedinthecontainmentofthespecies, identifyandnotifytheownersofthesematerials,machinery,plantproducts,orotherarticles, assessthepossibilityofcontainingthenewinvasivespeciesandpreventfurtherspread, identifyhowandwhereinfesteditemsand/orproductscouldbetreatedordisposedof, takepicturesofthenewspecies,includingaffectedplantsandareas, throughthecommunicationsspecialist,informappropriateauthoritiesandstakeholders, recommendlocalstaffwhowouldneedtobepartoffurtheractions, assessthefeasibility,costsandpossibleproblemsofcontaining,eradicatingandmanagingthe newspecies. As soon as practical, and in consultation with the other team members, the Technical Adviser completesasurveyreportwiththeaddressesofallstakeholdersasanannexanddistributesitto both the survey team and the ERMC members. The survey report should include: names of areas surveyed, area affected (extent of infestation), description of land use type, accessibility, include maps,photographs,densityofinfestationsandlandtenure. The survey report also includes response options, recommendations and tentative budgets. The Reportshouldnotrecommendaparticularcourseofactionbutoutlineoptionsavailable.TheERMC makesthedecisiononwhatoptionstotake. TheERMCwill,basedontheReportdecidetheresponseactions: 1. If the species cannot be eradicated in the infested area: containment within the infested area andsurveillanceinendangeredareas, 2. Ifthespeciescanpotentiallybeeradicatedintheinfestedarea:containmentwithintheinfested area and surveillance in endangered areas, followed by eradication in the infested area if the firststepwassuccessful. DraftManagementPlan TheTechnicalAdviserwilldevelopadraftmanagementplanandbudgetfortheresponsedecided bytheERMC.TheChairpersonconvenesameetingoftheERMCtodiscusstheTechnicalAdviser’s reportwithinaweekofreportsubmissionwhenthecommitteedecidesonacourseofaction.After approval by ERMC,theTechnicalAdviserfinalizesthe managementplan andbudgetforapproval bytheERMC,inconsultationwiththeFinanceOfficerandNRPManager. Themanagementplanshouldincludethefollowingcomponents: P a g e 72 | 84 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Asurveillanceplan, Aplanfortreatmentanderadicationincludinganticipatedtimeframetoeradication(ifneeded), Acommunicationsstrategy, Specificationsformovementcontrolsofriskitemsoutoftheinfestedarea. Themethodstobeusedformonitoringprogressanddeclarationofareafreedom, Abudget, Recommendationsforoperationalresearch(ifneeded);and Anorganizationalplan,suggestedincludingtimetables. SURVEILLANCE PLAN TheSurveillancePlanshouldincludethefollowing Specificationofplants,plantproducts,andotherriskitemsthatcouldbehostsorcarrythe invasivespecies, AlistofsurveillancesitesselectedontheadviceoftheTechnicalAdviser, Measuresthatachievecooperationfromusersoftheinfestedsite, Instructionsonhowto: o surveyanarea, o recorddata, Statewhowoulddotheactualsurveillance, Listofrequiredsurveillanceequipment(preferablylocallyavailable), Instructions for collecting and preserving suspect specimens for identification by a local specialist, Definefurtheractionifsuspiciousspecimensarefound, Asurveillanceschedule,and Startingdateformonthlyreviewsoftheoperation. Thesurveillanceplanshouldhaveaninformationfileonthenewspeciesandtherelevantpartof anylegalprovisionsattached. TREATMENT Thetreatmentplanshouldcontainthefollowing: A definition of the infested area: which plants, plant products, or other articles need to be treated,destroyedordisinfested, Measuresthatachievecooperationfromsiteusersandownersofpossiblyinfestedplants,plant productsorotherarticlesintheinfestedarea, A list of required equipment (preferably locally available). Stockpiles of pesticides for treatmentsthatcanbeusedandreplaced, Considerationshouldbegivenatanearlystagetotheregistrationofanypesticidesthatarenot alreadyregisteredorusepatternsnotcoveredbyexistinglabels, Containinstructionsonhowtotreat,disinfestordestroyriskitems, Actionifsuspiciousspecimenarefound, P a g e 73 | 84 Specifyunderwhatconditionsrestitutionmayneedtobepaidfordestructionofinfesteditems Establishworkschedules, Indicatethedurationoftreatments, Specifytheperiodoftimewithoutnewdetectionsthathastoelapsebeforethespeciescanbe declared eradicated. (Usually this is two years, but may be longer for plants with long‐lived seedbanks), Establishmentofanoperationalcontrolcenteroruseanalreadyestablishedfacility;and Startingdateformonthlyreviewsoftheoperation. The eradication plan has the file on the new species and the relevant part of the legal provisions attached. COMMUNICATIONS A communications strategy will need to be developed by a communications specialist and should addressthefollowingissues: Linesofcommunicationforoperationalstaff,theMaunaKeaManagementBoard,Universityof Hawai‘i,siteusersandotherkeystakeholders, Reportingtoappropriateagencies, Aplantoengageallsiteuserspotentiallyaffectedbythenewinvasivespecies, Disseminationofmovementcontrolsastheyapplytoriskitems, Apublicawarenessprogram. MOVEMENT CONTROLS Themovementcontrolplanshouldspecifywhichitemscanorcannotbemovedfromtheinfested area(s) as well as prescribed approved treatment for disinfestations where this is possible. The costsofdisinfestationsandresponsibilityformeetingthesecostsalsoneedstobeestablished. BUDGET Points to consider in the budget are, broadly speaking, expenses for human resources, transport, materialandawarenessmeasuresor,inmoredetail: Humanresources o salariesandwages, o overtimepayments, o mealallowances, o costsofaccommodationandperdiems. Transport o hireoftransport, o fuel, o spareparts,servicingandupkeep. Materials o Pesticides, P a g e 74 | 84 o inspectionequipment, o treatmentequipment, o firstaidkit, o stationery. PublicAwareness o radioortelevisionannouncements, o leaflets‐designcosts,numberofleaflets. Restitution o Appropriate restitution for destruction of risk items and possible loss of access to infestedsites. RESEARCH PRIORITIES Theplanshouldaddressanygapsinknowledgethatmightimpactonthesuccessofsurveillanceor eradication. It is possible there may be unique issues that may need to be dealt with. Where knowledgegaps,ortheneedformoreresearchortrialworkexists,theseshouldbeidentifiedinthe plan. OrganizationalStructure. The control center should report to the ERMC, through the NRP Manager. The complexity of the organizationalstructureshouldbeconsistentwiththesizeoftheresponse.Anorganizationalchart (Figure5.3)showsthereportingrelationships. P a g e 75 | 84 ERMC OMKM NRPmanager technicaladvisor operationsmanager fieldcontroller financeofficer communication officer surveyteams treatmentteams Figure 5.3. Organizational chart of the response team showing lines of authority (solid) and communication(dashed). Thedutiesandresponsibilitiesofkeystaffareasfollows: THE NRP MANAGER providesmonthlyreportstotheERMCandanswersqueries. OPERATIONS MANAGER ReportstotheNRPmanager, Isresponsiblefortheoverallimplementationofthesurveillanceanderadicationplans, Isresponsibleforthepurchaseofalltherequiredequipment, P a g e 76 | 84 Ensuresthatequipmentisavailablewhenandwhereneeded, Maintainsaninventoryofissuedequipment, Organizestransportandaccommodation, Selectsandappointsasurveillanceteamanderadicationteamofqualifiedstaff, Together with the Technical Adviser, briefs and trains the surveillance and eradication teams for their tasks. The trainers need to make sure that everybody knows their positions and understandstheirresponsibilities, Suppliesthesurveillanceteamwith: o surveillanceplanandattachments, o surveillanceequipment, o appropriateinspectionandtreatmentdocumentation, o safetyequipmentandfirstaidkit, o datasheets,notebooks,pens,markers. DecidesonimprovementstotheoperationthataresuggestedbytheTechnicalAdviserorField Controller, Managesoperationalfundsonaday‐to‐daybasis, ReportsexpensestotheFinanceOfficer,and RequestsnewfundsfromtheFinanceOfficer. THE FIELD CONTROLLER Inalargeresponse,thiscouldbecometwopositions:onemanagingsurveillanceandonemanaging treatment. For a smaller response, this position could be combined with that of the Operations Manager. Organizessurveillanceandtreatmentschedules, Isresponsiblefordaytodayimplementationoftheoperation, Ensuresthat: o appropriateproceduresarefollowed, o infestedproductsaredisposedofortreatedinthemostappropriateway, o treatmentsareappliedcorrectly. Decidesonimprovementstotheoperationsuggestedbythesurveillanceteam,and SuggestsimprovementstotheOperationsManagerandTechnicalAdviser. THE FINANCE OFFICER Insmalleroperations,thefinanceofficermaybeapersonworkingasanadministratorinthelead departmentandhaveadditionalresponsibilitiesnotrelatedtotheresponse.Inalargeroperation, theFinancialControllerwillbeadedicatedposition. ReportstotheOperationsmanagerandERMC, Isinchargeofadministrationandfinance, Establishesproceduresthatallowfastprocessingofpayments, Ensuresallappropriategovernancerequirementsarefollowed,and MobilizesnewfundsrequestedbytheOperationsManager. P a g e 77 | 84 COMMUNICATION OFFICER ReportstotheOperationsManagerandERMC, Managestheflowofinformation, Preparesbriefingnotestoseniormanagement,otherpoliticalentities,andensuresappropriate persons are informed of developments. This includes communication with site users and the media, PreparesbriefingnotesandreportstoERMC, Designsandimplementspublicoutreachstrategyincludingcontactwiththemedia, Designs and implements outreach and engagement strategy to site users and other relevant stakeholderslikelytovisitorworkwithintheareasbeingtreatedandsurveyed,and Isthefirstpointofcontactforexternalagenciesregardingprogressanddevelopments. THE TECHNICAL ADVISER: Briefsandtrainsthesurveillanceteamand,inthecaseofaneradication,alsotheFieldController, on their tasks and targets. The briefing is conducted together with the Operations Manager. The trainers need to make sure that everybody knows their positions and understands their responsibilities; Periodicallymonitorstheoperationtoassessprogress, SuggestsimprovementstotheOperationsManager, SourcesadditionaltechnicalinformationfortheERMC,and Suggestsresearchprioritiesifrequired. THE SURVEILLANCE AND TREATMENT TEAMS: ReporttotheFieldController, Followtheproceduresoutlinedinthesurveillanceandtreatmentplans, Treatandifnecessarydestroyhostmaterials, Keeprecordsofinspected,treated,destroyedorreleasedriskitems, Collectsuspectedsamplesandforwardsthemforidentification,and SuggestimprovementstotheFieldControllerandTechnicalAdviser. AreaFreedom/PestFreedom Theacceptedstandardfordeclaringareafreedominaneradicationistheabsenceoftheinvasive speciesfortwolifecyclesoftheorganismusingacceptedsurveillancemethods.Formostinsects, thisperiodistwoyears,butforplantswithlong‐livedseedbanks,thisperiodmaybemuchlonger. Thefrequencyandextentofsurveillanceneedstobesufficientlyrigoroustoensurethespeciesis trulyeradicatedandnewdiscoveriestreatedbeforetheyareabletoreproduceanddisperse. 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A Report on the Invertebrate Fauna found on the proposed NRAO VLBA antennae facility site, Mauna Kea Science Reserve, Mauna Kea, Hamakua, Hawaii. Amendment to the Mauna Kea Science Reserve Complex Development Plan: The National RadioAstronomyObservatory,Socorro,Mexico,1988:4. P a g e 82 | 84 Appendices ListofStandardOperatingProcedures StandardOperatingProcedures(SOPs)willbeupdatedpertheadaptivemanagementprinciplesof thisdocument.SOPswilltakeeffectonceapprovedbytheMaunaKeaManagementBoardand(as required)bytheDLNROfficeofCoastal&ConservationLands(OCCL);withthestatusfieldbelow updated to reflect the date of acceptance. This list of appendices is subject to change, the topics listedwillallbeaddressed. Plan StandardOperatingProcedure(SOP) Category IntroductoryMaterial(Intro) Intro SOP‐A Intro SOP‐BMaunakeaVertebrateThreats, Identification,Collection,&Processing Guide Intro SOP‐CMaunakeaInvertebrateThreats, Identification,Collection,&Processing Guide Intro SOP‐DMaunakeaPlantThreats, Identification,Collection&Processing Guide Prevention(Prevent) Prevent SOP01CleaningofVehiclesandPersonal Belongings Prevent SOP02InspectionofVehicles, ConstructionMaterials,Scientific Equipment,&Supplies Prevent SOP03CafeteriaFoodShipments (Receiving) Prevent SOP04NurseryPlantTreatment& Inspection Prevent SOP05ProphylacticPesticideUse EarlyDetection(EarlyD) EarlyD SOP10InvasiveInvertebrate Early DetectionSurveysofFacilities EarlyD SOP11AnnualAlienInvertebrate Early Detection&WēkiuBugMonitoring EarlyD SOP12MaunakeaScienceReserveEarly DetectionofArthropod&Vegetation Surveys SOP13Roads,Trails,&HPEarly DetectionofArthropod&Vegetation Surveys EarlyD ContentNotes Status Reserved IDguideforvertebrates notstarted IDguideforarthropods, spiders SubmittedJan.2015 IDguideforplants Internalreview draft Cleaningprocedures SubmittedJan.2015 Inspectionprocedures SubmittedJan.2015 Cleaning&Inspection Procedures AdoptprovenState methods Preventativesite treatment SubmittedJan.2015 Adoptexisting standard Notstarted a)Locations b)Methods c)Analysis/Report a)Locations b)Methods c)Analysis/Report a)Locations b)Methods c)Analysis/Report a)Locations b)Methods c)Analysis/Report SubmittedJan.2015 Internalreview draft Internalreview draft Notstarted P a g e 83 | 84 RapidResponse(RapidR) RapidR SOP20ArthropodEmergencyResponse RapidR SOP21EmergencyResponseforTwo TypesofWoodyPlants RapidR SOP22EmergencyResponsePlanfor TwoTypesofGrasses RapidR SOP23EmergencyResponsePlanfor TwoTypesofHerbaceousPlants Control(Control) Control SOP30VertebrateMonitoring&Control, IACUC Control SOP31 Control SOP32ControlPlansforHigh‐Priority InvertebratesSpecies Control SOP33ControlPlansforHigh‐Priority PlantSpecies Control SOP34PesticideUseonEstablishedPlant &ArthropodSpecies RapidResponsefor Arthropods.(incl. ArgentineAntspecific chapterasexample) RapidResponsefor Woodyplants RapidResponsefor grasses RapidResponsefor herbaceousplants Internalreview draft Notstarted Notstarted Notstarted Methods&IACUC approval reserved PriorityArthropod speciescontrolmethods Plants NotStarted PesticideuseforPlant& Arthropodcontrolin designatedareas Control SOP35ControlPlanforHalepōhaku, Road Alltaxa Corridor,MaunakeaScienceReserve,& AstronomyPrecinct Monitoring(Mon) Mon SOP40PlantMonitoring PlantMonitoring.Maybe cross‐referencewith otherSOPs Mon SOP41VertebrateMonitoring Emphasison ‘uncontrolled’species suchasbirds.Other speciesmonitoredvia ‘control’SOP. Mon InvertebrateMonitoring SeeSOP10&SOP11 Education/Outreach(Edu) Edu SOP50 TBD SOP51StaffTraining&Implementation Stafftrainingand proceduresfor inspection,species observations,etc. OtherSOPs(Other) Other SOP‐ZRevisingtheInvasiveSpecies Processtofollow ManagementPlan Other SOP‐YTMT‐SpecificInstructions Excerpts&Summaries Notstarted Notstarted Notstarted Notstarted Notstarted Notstarted Cross‐reference Inpreparation Internalreview draft Updatedasneeded P a g e 84 | 84