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Chaffee Winter 2013 CHAPTER 8 Memory CHAPTER 8 OVERVIEW The Encoding: Getting Information In Storage: Retaining Information Retrieval: Getting Information Out Forgetting Memory Construction Improving Memory Chaffee Winter 2013 Phenomenon of Memory Studying Memory: Information Processing Models INTRODUCTION How does our memory define us? field of psychology defines memory as the persistence of learning over time through the storage and retrieval of information. We will describe memory with the informationprocessing model – perspective that compares human cognition to the processing of a computer. Chaffee Winter 2013 The INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL Storage: the retention of encoded information over time Retrieval: the process of getting information out of memory storage Chaffee Winter 2013 Encoding: the processing of information into the memory system INFORMATION PROCESSING MODEL THE PHENOMENON OF MEMORY sensory memory: the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system 2. working memory: conscious, active processing of incoming auditory and visual-spatial information, and of information retrieved from long-term memory. 3. long-term memory: the relatively permanent and limitless storehouse of the memory system, including knowledge, skills, and experiences. Chaffee Winter 2013 1. HOW DOES MEMORY WORK? 2. 3. Encoding Storage Retrieval Chaffee Winter 2013 1. ENCODING: GETTING INFORMATION IN Automatic Processing: unconscious encoding of incidental information, such as space, time, and frequency, and of well-learned information, such as word meanings Effortful Processing: encoding that requires attention and conscious effort Rehearsal EFFORTFUL PROCESSING CONTINUED Practice For novel verbal information, practice – effortful processing – does indeed make perfect. The amount remembered depends on the time spent learning. Spacing effect: the tendency for distributed study or practice to yield better long-term retention than is achieved through massed study (cramming) or practice Serial position effect: our tendency to recall best the last and first items of a list Chaffee Winter 2013 effect: WHAT WE ENCODE Levels Encoding its meaning Encoding its image Mentally organizing it Encoding Meaning: the amount remembered depends on both the time spent learning and on making it meaningful. Chaffee Winter 2013 of Processing: We process information by WHAT WE ENCODE CONTINUED Visual encoding Imagery: mental pictures; a powerful aid to effortful processing, especially when combined with encoding Mnemonic devices: memory aids, especially those techniques that use vivid imagery and organizational devices E.g. Please excuse my dear aunt sally E.g. Roy G. Biv Chaffee Winter 2013 ORGANIZING FOR ENCODING Chunking: organizing items into familiar, manageable units; often occurs automatically. Hierarchies: organizing information into broad categories divided into narrower concepts and facts STORAGE: RETAINING INFORMATION Sensory Iconic memory: fleeting photographic memory Echoic memory: momentary sensory memory of auditory stimuli Chaffee Winter 2013 Memory – the immediate, very brief recording of sensory information in the memory system. STORAGE: RETAINING INFORMATION Working/Short-Term Limited in duration and capacity: 7 ± 2 (Miller, 1956) At any given moment, we can consciously process only a very limited amount of information Long-Term Memory Essentially limitless Chaffee Winter 2013 Memory STORING MEMORIES IN THE BRAIN Memories Learning = more efficient synapses Long-term potentiation (LTP): an increase in a synapse’s firing potential after brief, rapid stimulation. Note the several lines of evidence that confirm LTP’s role in memory (page 340-341) Chaffee Winter 2013 are not stored in discrete locations in the brain, but are rather diffuse. Experience modifies neural networks. Synaptic Changes STRESS HORMONES AND MEMORY Arousal Strong, emotionally laden experiences make for more reliable memory (McGaugh, 1994, 2003). Flashbulb memories: a clear memory of an emotionally significant moment or event Chaffee Winter 2013 can sear certain events into the brain, while disrupting memory for neutral events around the same time (Birnbaum et al., 2004; Brewin et al., 2007). STORING IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT MEMORIES Chaffee Winter 2013 STORING IMPLICIT AND EXPLICIT MEMORIES Amnesia: the loss of memory Implicit memory: nondeclarative memory Retention independent of conscious recollection Explicit memory: declarative memory Memory of facts and experiences that one can consciously know and “declare” Chaffee Winter 2013 The case of H.M. Oliver Sacks and Jimmie THE HIPPOCAMPUS The hippocampus is a neural center that is located in the limbic system, it helps process explicit memories for storage Lateralized Right hippocampus damage: trouble visual designs and locations Left hippocampus damage: trouble with verbal information THE CEREBELLUM Forming Chaffee Winter 2013 and storing the implicit memories created by classical conditioning Cerebellum damage: people cannot developed conditioned reflexes RETRIEVAL: GETTING INFORMATION OUT The Three R’s of Retrieval: measure of memory in which the person must retrieve information learned earlier E.g. fill-in-the-blank questions on a test. Recognition: measure of memory in which a person need only identify items previously learned E.g. multiple choice questions on a test. Relearning: measure of memory that assesses the amount of time saved when learning material for a second time Chaffee Winter 2013 Recall: RETRIEVAL CLUES Retrieval clues are anchor points you can use to access the target information when you want to retrieve it later Mneumonic devices Priming: the activation, often unconsciously, of particular associations in memory Chaffee Winter 2013 Memories are held in storage by a web of associations FORGETTING Seven sins of memory, Daniel Schacter (1999) Encoding failure: A B Storage Decay Retrieval Failure Proactive interference versus Retroactive interference Motivated Forgetting: repression C MEMORY CONSTRUCTION This Chaffee Winter 2013 section of the book, on pages 281 – 286 are incredibly interesting, but I will not be testing you on this information in the future. Please read the section “Repressed or Constructed Memories of Abuse” - Note the work of Elizabeth Loftus. IMPROVING MEMORY The Chaffee Winter 2013 last section, Improving Memory, can be helpful. Additionally, it provides a review of the some of the chapter’s topics. CHAPTER 8 REVIEW Studying Memory: Encoding Storage Distinguish implicit and explicit memory. Describe long-term potentiation. Retrieval Distinguish automatic and effortful processing. What is the spacing effect? What is the serial position effect? What do we encode? Encoding meaning, visual encoding, organization for encoding. What are the three types of memory retrieval? What are cues for retrieval? Why do we forget? Chaffee Winter 2013 Describe the information processing model of memory. Encoding, storage, retrieval Sensory memory, Working memory, Long-term memory