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1. Introduction
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In the late 1800s, one of the best-known New Yorkers was not a person at all. He was the Yellow Kid, a
character in a wildly popular newspaper comic. For a time, the Yellow Kid appeared in two newspapers at
once, the New York World and the New York Journal, which competed to own the comic.
The struggle over the Yellow Kid was part of a larger "newspaper war" in New York City during the
1890s. Joseph Pulitzer, the publisher of the World, faced off against William Randolph Hearst, the
publisher of the Journal, in a battle to dominate the city's newspaper market. Their struggle over
newspaper sales helped to provoke a real war, the Spanish-American War.
The artist who created the Yellow Kid, R. F. Outcalt, first sold his comic in 1895 to Pulitzer's World. The
comic was set in New York's poor, rough-and-tumble ethnic neighborhoods and featured a bald-headed
street urchin dressed in a bright yellow nightshirt. The Yellow Kid was an instant success. Newspaper
comics were new at the time, and Pulitzer's World enjoyed a huge jump in sales.
Not to be outdone, Hearst lured Outcalt to the Journal by promising him more money. In response,
Pulitzer hired another cartoonist to draw his own version of the cartoon. Before long, the two newspapers
were flooded with images of the Yellow Kid and became known as the "Yellow Kid Papers" or "Yellow
Papers."
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The rivalry between the World and the Journal extended beyond the Yellow Kid cartoons. In their struggle
to attract readers, the two "Yellow Papers" developed an exaggerated style of reporting. Their sensational
news stories soon became known as yellow journalism.Among these stories were news reports about
other countries. One favorite subject was the brutal suppression of a rebellion in Cuba against Spanish
rule. Yellow journalism helped inflame public support for going to war against Spain. In this chapter, you
will learn why the United States went to war against Spain and why this conflict was a significant event in
American foreign relations.
2. Trouble Brewing in Cuba
The island of Cuba lies just 90 miles off the coast of Florida, in the Caribbean Sea. It was founded as a
Spanish colony by Christopher Columbus in 1492 and later became one of the world's leading sugar
producers. Hundreds of thousands of slaves worked on its plantations. For over three centuries, Cuba
was part of Spain's vast empire. But by the late 1800s, there were just two Spanish colonies in the
Americas: the islands of Puerto Rico and Cuba. A growing independence movement was threatening
Spanish rule in Cuba.
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Cubans Struggle for Independence During the 1800s, many Cubans had voiced a desire for selfrule. In 1868, a revolutionary group largely made up of poor whites, free blacks, and slaves demanded
independence from Spain, the establishment of a republic, and the end of slavery.When Spain rejected
these demands, bitter fighting followed. Spain eventually crushed the revolt but then tried to ease
tensions by agreeing to limited reforms. It gave Cubans some representation in the government, and it
abolished slavery in 1886.
Meanwhile, Cuba was coming under the economic influence of the United States. American business
interests saw it as a good place to trade and invest. By the mid-1890s, American investment in Cuba's
sugar plantations had reached many millions of dollars. American investors were therefore nervous about
the island's political instability.
Despite some reforms, the political situation did not improve significantly. In 1895, Cubans again
rebelled. This second struggle for independence was led by José Martí, a Cuban poet, journalist, and
statesman. Forced to leave Cuba because of his revolutionary activities, Martí lived in the United States
from 1881 to 1895. Even while he was living abroad, Martí inspired his fellow Cubans with calls for
liberty. He wrote, "Like bones to the human body . . . so is liberty the essence of life.Whatever is done
without it is imperfect." Martí sailed to Cuba in 1895 to lead the revolt but was soon killed in
combat. Nevertheless, the rebellion continued.
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The Cuban rebels engaged in guerrilla warfare, launching surprise attacks against Spanish forces and
fading back into the countryside. In 1896, Spain sent a new commander, General Valeriano Weyler, to
put down the uprising. To eliminate support for the rebels, Weyler forced tens of thousands of Cubans
into reconcentration camps. These overcrowded, unsanitary prison camps provided little food or shelter,
causing thousands of deaths from disease and starvation.
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Many Americans sympathized with the rebellion, seeing it as a struggle for freedom, like the American
Revolution. Meanwhile, American investors feared that the political unrest was putting their Cuban
investments and property at risk. Despite public calls for the United States to intervene in Cuba, President
Grover Cleveland followed a policy of strict neutrality. When William McKinley was elected president in
1896, he hoped to maintain neutrality. But that would become more difficult as the public increasingly
called for the United States to help the rebels.
American Newspapers React Most Americans learned about the events in Cuba through newspapers
and magazines. At that time, these were the only forms of mass media—methods of communicating to a
mass audience.
Newspapers were very popular in the late 1800s. With the yellow journalism of the time, however, many
papers were not as careful in their reporting as they are today. To sell newspapers, publishers like
Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst sensationalized the news. Both the New York World and
the New York Journal saw reporting on the Cuban rebellion as a good way to gain new
readers. Reporters and artists were encouraged to stretch the truth about the bravery of Cuban rebels
and the horrors of Spanish rule, especially "Butcher" Weyler's brutality. Many readers were shocked by
these reports. Some demanded that the United States help Cuba win independence. In this way, yellow
journalism helped stir public support for U.S. intervention to aid the rebels.
3. Americans Call for War with Spain
In 1897, the Spanish government promised greater self-rule in Cuba. It also removed General Weyler
from his post and ordered him to return to Spain. As a result, the Cuban crisis cooled down. In February
1898, however, two events aroused American anger and led to increasing calls for war.
The de Lôme Letter Incites the Public On February 9, 1898, Hearst's New York Journal published a
letter written by Enrique Dupuy de Lôme, the Spanish ambassador to Washington. The de Lôme letter
was addressed to a friend in Cuba but was somehow stolen from the mail and sent to the Journal for
publication.
In the letter, de Lôme called President McKinley "weak and catering to the rabble and, besides, a low
politician." Americans were offended by this criticism of their president. De Lôme offered his resignation,
but the damage was done. The publishing of this letter intensified anti-Spanish feelings in the United
States and underscored the power of the press to inflame public opinion.
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Newspapers Decry the Maine Incident Not long after the de Lôme affair, a much more alarming incident
occurred: the sinking of the battleship USS Maine in Havana harbor. Newspapers around the country
responded with calls for vengeance.
The Maine had sailed to Cuba in January after riots broke out in the streets of Havana. Spaniards who
opposed government reforms in Cuba led the riots. Fearing harm to American citizens and property,
President McKinley had sent the Maine to Cuba to protect American interests.
For two weeks, the Maine sat in Havana harbor. Then, on the night of February 15, a tremendous
explosion rocked the battleship.The captain reported hearing "a bursting, rending, and crashing roar of
immense volume." Then the ship began to sink. More than 260 sailors died from the blast.
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An official navy investigation began immediately, but the Journal and other newspapers immediately
blamed Spain. The Hearst paper published bellicose articles under such headlines as "The MaineWas
Destroyed by Treachery" and "The Whole Country Thrills with War Fever!" Across the country,
"Remember the Maine" became a rallying cry for war.
The United States Responds In March, the navy issued its report on the sinking of the Maine.Though
the evidence was sketchy, navy investigators concluded that the explosion was caused by an underwater
mine. Their report did not suggest who was responsible. In 1976, navy researchers who studied the
incident again concluded that heat from a fire in a coal bin exploded a nearby supply of ammunition.
Four days before the report was completed, Senator Redfield Proctor of Vermont gave a compelling
speech on the Senate floor. Proctor had just returned from Cuba and described the appalling conditions
there. Although General Weyler was no longer in charge, the reconcentration camps were still in
operation, and the Cuban people were still suffering. Proctor concluded,
To me the strongest appeal is not the barbarity practiced by Weyler nor the loss of the Maine .. . but the
spectacle of a million and a half of people, the entire native population of Cuba, struggling for freedom
and deliverance from the worst misgovernment of which I ever had knowledge.
—Redfield Proctor, speech before the Senate, March 17, 1898
The Maine report and Proctor's speech helped turn opinion in Congress and the public toward war.But
President McKinley, still hoping to avoid conflict, gave Spain one last chance. He called for anarmistice,
a cessation of hostilities, until a permanent peace could be discussed. He also called on Spain to close
the reconcentration camps and to take steps to grant Cuba its independence. Spain agreed to an
armistice and to closing the camps, but was unwilling to give up control of Cuba.
Under great public pressure, McKinley asked Congress to declare war on Spain. Congress passed
a resolution, a formal statement about a course of action, recognizing Cuban independence and
authorizing military force, if necessary, to liberate Cuba. Congress also passed the Teller Amendment,
which said that after Cuba was liberated and peace was restored, the United States would "leave the
government and control of the Island to its people." Spain then passed a declaration of war against the
United States. On April 25, Congress formally declared war on Spain.
4. A "Splendid Little War" with Spain
The Spanish-American War lasted only a few months, but it had dramatic results. The United States won
the conflict convincingly, demonstrating military power in overseas combat, with few American battle
casualties. John Hay, who served as U.S. ambassador to Britain and later as secretary of state,
described it as "a splendid little war, begun with the highest motives, carried on with magnificent
intelligence and spirit, favored by that Fortune which loves the brave."
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Fighting Begins in the Philippines Even though the war was sparked by problems in Cuba, the first
battle took place much farther away, in the Philippines. A large group of islands southeast of China, the
Philippines were Spain's largest remaining colony. As in Cuba, a revolt against Spain had been
brewing. Emilio Aguinaldo, a young Filipino, led this resistance. When the Spanish-American War began,
he was living in exile in Hong Kong.
At least two months before war was declared, the United States began preparing for battle in the
Philippines. If war broke out, it wanted to strike a quick blow against the Spanish fleet in Manila
Bay.Theodore Roosevelt, the assistant secretary of the navy at the time, instructed the commander of the
Pacific squadron, Commodore George Dewey, to sail to Hong Kong and await further orders.
On May 1, just days after the declaration of war, Dewey's squadron steamed into Manila Bay and opened
fire on the Spanish fleet. Taken by surprise, the fleet was entirely destroyed. Dewey did not lose a single
ship and suffered only a few battle casualties.
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Dewey had scored a stunning victory but did not have sufficient troops to land in Manila and take the
city. In the meantime, Aguinaldo returned to the Philippines with his rebel forces to fight the Spanish on
his own. American reinforcements finally arrived near the end of July. On August 13, the Philippines fell to
a combined force of American soldiers and Filipino rebels.
Fighting Moves to Cuba Meanwhile, fighting had begun in Cuba. The U.S. Navy quickly set up a
blockade of Havana and the north coast of Cuba. At the eastern end of the island, however, a Spanish
squadron slipped into the harbor at Santiago de Cuba. President McKinley ordered troops to sail for
Santiago. The plan was to join the navy there and engage the Spanish. The American troops, led by
General William Shafter, arrived outside Santiago on June 20.
The U.S. Army in Cuba consisted of various forces. Among them were four regiments of African American
soldiers, many of whom had fought in the Indian Wars in the American West. The army also relied on
volunteer regiments, including one led by Theodore Roosevelt. When the war began, Roosevelt quit his
post as assistant secretary of the navy so that he could join the fighting. Together with Colonel Leonard
Wood, he helped form the First U.S. Volunteer Cavalry, better known as theRough Riders. Handpicked
by Roosevelt, this regiment was a mix of college athletes and western cowboys.
On July 1, General Shafter launched his assault on Santiago, moving against Spanish troops dug in along
a ridge. Roosevelt and the Rough Riders charged up Kettle Hill, while other U.S. forces fought the even
tougher battle for San Juan Hill. By nightfall, the U.S. Army had taken the ridge.
The rest of the war went quickly. The American navy destroyed the Spanish squadron as it tried to leave
Santiago harbor, and on July 17, Santiago surrendered. The following week, the United States captured
Puerto Rico. With no prospect of success, Spain agreed to a peace settlement on August 12. Four
months after the start of the conflict, the war was over.
Despite their quick victory, not everything went well for the U.S. forces. About 5,500 Americans died in
the war, mostly from tropical diseases like malaria and yellow fever. As regiments were formed on short
notice, many soldiers lacked proper equipment and supplies. Most had heavy wool uniforms, a severe
liability in Cuba's tropical heat, and food was often of poor quality. Despite these difficulties, the United
States had won a major victory in its first overseas war.
5. A New Power on the World Stage
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With its victory in the Spanish-American War, the United States emerged as a new world power. It had
defeated a European nation and won control of overseas territories. In the peace treaty, the United States
solidified its new position in world affairs.
The Treaty of Paris The war ended on August 12, 1898, with the signing of a peace protocol, a first
draft of a treaty to be submitted for ratification. In October, Spanish and American officials met in Paris to
finalize the terms.
On December 10, the United States and Spain signed the Treaty of Paris. Spain agreed to three main
points. First, it granted independence to Cuba. Second, it ceded Puerto Rico and the Pacific island of
Guam to the United States. And third, it ceded the Philippines to the United States in exchange for a
payment of $20 million. Under the treaty, Puerto Rico, Guam, and the Philippines became American
possessions. The United States was now a colonial empire.
The Senate Debate over the Treaty For the treaty to take effect, the Senate would have to ratify it by a
two-thirds vote. This vote prompted a fierce debate over imperialism. While some Americans supported
creating an American empire, others were strongly opposed. The debate over the treaty raged not only in
the Senate but also across the entire country.
Leading opponents were the members of the Anti-Imperialist League, an organization formed during the
war to oppose the establishment of U.S. colonies. Its membership was diverse, ranging from union leader
Samuel Gompers to millionaire industrialist Andrew Carnegie. Social worker Jane Addams joined, as did
author Mark Twain. Although the motives and political views of league members varied widely, they all
believed that imperialism violated the country's founding principles of freedom and democracy. As the
league's platform stated, "We hold that the policy known as imperialism is hostile to liberty . . . We insist
that the subjugation of any people is 'criminal aggression' and open disloyalty to the distinctive principles
of our Government."
Supporters of the treaty included many prominent political leaders, such as President William McKinley,
Theodore Roosevelt, and Senator Henry Cabot Lodge. During the Senate debate, Lodge argued that
forming an empire was critical to the nation's future. He declared that the United States needed to
compete equally with other great nations. In a letter to Theodore Roosevelt, Lodge wrote that rejection of
the treaty would be a "humiliation of the whole country in the eyes of the world" and would "show we are
unfit to enter into great questions of foreign policy."
The Senate debate raged for a month. In the end, the supporters of empire won out. By a vote of 57 to
27, a two-thirds majority by the narrow margin of two votes, the Senate ratified the Treaty of Paris on
February 6, 1899. The United States now had its empire. But the debate over imperialism would continue
into the 20th century.
The United States Stays in Cuba Cuba also remained an issue in American foreign policy. Although the
Treaty of Paris granted Cuba independence, the island was in ruins. President McKinley decided that the
United States should remain in Cuba to restore order and assist in the island's recovery.
For four years, the United States ruled Cuba under a military government. This government improved
sanitation and built schools and roads. But many Cubans resented American control. They believed that
the occupation violated the spirit of the Treaty of Paris and the Teller Amendment, which had pledged that
the United States would leave the island after the war was over.
The United States finally withdrew its troops in 1902, but only after Cuba added provisions to its
constitution to protect American interests. These provisions, called thePlatt Amendment, allowed the
United States to intervene in Cuban affairs and to buy or lease land for naval bases. In the years to come,
U.S. troops reoccupied Cuba on several occasions. The United States finally agreed in 1934 to repeal the
Platt Amendment. However, a U.S. naval base at Guantánamo Bay, on Cuba's southeastern coast, still
operates under a permanent lease.
American companies also gained significant control over the Cuban economy. By 1913, American
investment on the island had quadrupled from prewar levels to $220 million. U.S. business interests
owned 60 percent of Cuba's rural lands and controlled many of the island's industries.
2. Three Presidents, Three Foreign Policies
By going to war with Spain and acquiring overseas possessions, President McKinley had set the stage for
a more aggressive foreign policy. The next three presidents—Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson—pursued their
own policies. But all three gave the United States an even greater role in world affairs.
Although their foreign policies differed, each president intervened abroad to pursue American
goals. Some goals were realist, such as controlling access to foreign resources. Other goals were
idealist, such as promoting democracy. In developing foreign policy, the guiding principle for all three
presidents was to serve the national interest. This is the set of goals—political, economic, military, and
cultural—that a nation considers important. Roosevelt, Taft, and Wilson carried out foreign policies they
believed would advance American interests.
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Roosevelt Expands U.S. Involvement Overseas Theodore Roosevelt applied an energetic spirit to
foreign policy. He wanted to make the United States a great power that could exert influence around the
world. He believed that the country must meet any challenge to its national interest abroad.
Roosevelt once wrote, "I have always been fond of the West African proverb: 'Speak softly and carry a big
stick; you will go far.'" He believed in working quietly and patiently to achieve goals overseas but using
force if necessary. Roosevelt's strong-arm approach to foreign affairs became known as theBig Stick
Policy.
In 1904, Roosevelt formalized this policy in a major address to Congress. He reminded his audience that
the Monroe Doctrine was designed to prevent European meddling in the Americas. Yet he noted that
nearly a century later many countries in the hemisphere were still too weak to defend themselves. He
asserted that the United States therefore must use "international police power" to preserve peace and
order in the hemisphere and protect American interests. He claimed that this power would help protect
weak nations and was a direct extension of the Monroe Doctrine. For that reason, his statement became
known as the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. A corollary is a proposition that is a logical
extension of a principle.
Over the next several decades, the United States intervened repeatedly in Latin America and the
Caribbean. It sent troops to suppress unrest and prop up rulers who supported U.S. interests. Roosevelt
and his successors claimed that these actions were necessary to promote stability in the region, but many
critics saw them as an exercise of imperial power.
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Roosevelt also used diplomacy to help bring peace to a foreign region. In 1905, he mediated a conflict
between Japan and Russia, which were fighting to control Korea and Manchuria. For his efforts in ending
the war, he won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1906. However, the treaty left both Japan and Russia
dissatisfied and resentful of the United States.
Taft Advances U.S. Economic Interests After becoming president in 1909, William Howard Taft
continued the main thrust of Roosevelt's foreign policy but shifted to economic goals. His policy, which
became known as Dollar Diplomacy, was to encourage and protect American trade and investment in
Latin America and Asia. Taft believed that a strong economic presence abroad would advance American
interests.
Taft claimed that Dollar Diplomacy would limit the use of force overseas. But the United States continued
to intervene militarily. In Nicaragua, for example, it supported a revolt that brought a pro-U.S. leader into
power in 1911. American banks then provided loans to the new government. The government was corrupt
and unpopular, however, and a new revolt broke out in 1912. Taft sent marines to put it down and to
protect American business interests. The United States kept troops in Nicaragua almost continuously until
1933.
Wilson Champions Democracy Around the Globe When Woodrow Wilson became president in 1913,
he tried to take a moral approach to foreign relations. He called this policy Moral Diplomacy. It was
based on democratic ideals, rather than on economic investment or the use of force. The United States
should use its power to aid "the development of constitutional liberty in the world," Wilson said, by basing
its foreign policy on "human rights, national integrity, and opportunity, as against national interests."
Wilson also introduced a concept called self-determination into American foreign policy. By this he
meant the right of other peoples to determine their own government, free of outside influence.
In dealing with the countries of Latin America, Wilson said, "We must prove ourselves their friends and
champions upon terms of equality and honor . . . whether it squares with our own interest or not." His
principles were tested by more turmoil in Latin America. In 1915, a revolt in Haiti prompted him to send
marines to protect American lives and investments. It was not until 1934 that the United States withdrew
its troops from Haiti. In 1916, Wilson sent troops to the Dominican Republic, where they stayed for 12
years. Wilson eventually intervened more than either Taft or Roosevelt.
3. U.S. Involvement in Latin America
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In the early 1900s, Latin America and the Caribbean were a special focus of U.S. foreign policy. The
United States viewed this region as its own "backyard" and therefore a good place to exert its power and
influence. In addition to Nicaragua, Haiti, and the Dominican Republic, the United States intervened in
other Latin American countries, notably Panama, Mexico, and Puerto Rico.
The U.S. Helps Panama Overthrow Colombian Rule The United States became interested in Panama
in the mid-1800s. Various nations wanted to build a canal across Central America as a shortcut between
the Atlantic and Pacific oceans. Such a canal would have enormous commercial and military
value. During the Spanish-American War, the battleship USS Oregon had to travel almost 14,000 miles
around the tip of South America to get from California to Cuba. A canal would shorten the journey to just
under 5,000 miles.
The narrow Isthmus of Panama was part of Colombia. The Roosevelt administration tried to lease land in
Panama for a canal, but the Colombian government turned down the offer. In 1903, the United States
encouraged a revolt in Panama. Roosevelt sent warships to prevent Colombian troops from
intervening. The revolt succeeded, and the United States quickly recognized Panama as an independent
nation.
The Panama Canal: An Engineering Feat The new government soon signed a treaty allowing the
United States to build the Panama Canal. The 51-mile canal was a marvel of engineering. At least
40,000 workers carved the "Big Ditch" through mountains, rainforests, and swamps. Thousands of
workers fell prey to tropical diseases such as malaria and yellow fever. One worker complained that the
mosquitoes were so thick "you get a mouthful with every breath."
After 10 years of construction, the canal opened to great fanfare on August 15, 1914. Roosevelt called it
"the most important action I took in foreign affairs."
Although the canal helped to improve international trade, Roosevelt's actions in Panama angered many
Latin Americans. In 1921, the United States tried to undo some of this damage by paying Colombia $25
million. Colombia's government also had special access to the canal. For most of the 1900s, however, the
United States treated the canal as its own property. Not until 1999 did it return control of the canal to
Panama.
U.S. Businesses Invest Heavily in Mexico The United States also played a strong role in Mexico in the
early 1900s. Since 1884, the dictator Porfirio Díaz had ruled the country with a heavy hand. Most
Mexicans remained poor, while a handful of landowners, businesspeople, and foreign investors grew very
rich. Americans were among the chief investors. By 1910, U.S. businesses had invested around $2 billion
in Mexico, buying up land, banks, mines, and other properties.
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Revolution was brewing, though. In 1910, Francisco Madero attempted to lead a revolt. Madero failed to
gain enough support, but another uprising ousted Díaz in 1911. Madero took power but could not control
the country. One of his generals, Victoriano Huerta, overthrew him and had him killed. Other countries
then recognized the Huerta government. American business interests wanted President Wilson to do the
same. They believed that Huerta would stabilize the country and protect their investments.
Wilson was horrified by Madero's murder, however. He wanted to promote democracy in Mexico and
refused to recognize what he called "a government of butchers." Instead, he backed Huerta's chief
opponent, General Venustiano Carranza, who he hoped would support democratic reform.
The U.S. Nearly Goes to War with Mexico Tensions between Wilson and the Huerta government almost
led to war. In 1914, Wilson sent troops to Veracruz, a port on the Gulf of Mexico, to keep weapons from
reaching Huerta's army. In the battle with Huerta's soldiers in the streets of Veracruz, about 90 Americans
and at least 300 Mexicans were killed or wounded. Much to Wilson's surprise, most Mexicans—including
Carranza—opposed the U.S. action. Other Latin American countries also criticized the
intervention. Wilson hastily pulled the forces out, saying that he was only trying to help Mexico. Several
months later, Huerta resigned and Carranza gained power.
But the Mexican Revolution continued. Two rebel leaders, Emiliano Zapata and Francisco "Pancho" Villa,
rose up against Carranza. Villa, in particular, aroused American concern. Hoping to force a U.S.
intervention, he ordered attacks on American citizens in Mexico and the United States. In one crossborder raid in 1916, Villa was responsible for the killing of 17 Americans in New Mexico. Wilson sent
troops to capture him, but Villa eluded the American forces, drawing them deeper into Mexico. This
military action alarmed the Mexican people, who feared a U.S. invasion. Carranza insisted that the
American troops leave. At that point, the United States was nearing entry into World War I. Recognizing
the failure of the intervention, Wilson withdrew from Mexico.
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Puerto Rico Remains a U.S. Possession The United States also became deeply involved in Puerto
Rico. After the Spanish-American War, it instituted a military government that began to develop Puerto
Rico's infrastructure. It set up schools and a postal service. It also built roads and improved sanitation. In
1900, the United States established a civilian government led by an American governor. Puerto Ricans
formed political parties and organized a legislature. But the island remained an American possession.
Over the next two decades, Puerto Ricans grew increasingly frustrated with American rule. They were
neither U.S. citizens nor an independent nation. The United States recognized Puerto Rico's strategic
value in the Caribbean, however, and wanted to maintain control over the island.
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In 1917, President Wilson signed the Jones Act, making Puerto Rico a U.S. territory. Puerto Ricans
became citizens but were not granted all the rights of citizenship. They could not elect their own governor
or vote in U.S. elections.
Puerto Rico's Status Evolves Over time, Puerto Rico became more integrated into the U.S.
economy. At first, American investors poured money into sugar production, which became the island's
main economic activity. The sugar industry produced great wealth for a small minority but left most Puerto
Ricans in poverty. In 1930, the average annual income was just $122, one fifth of the U.S. average. Later
on, Americans would make large investments in manufacturing plants. Still, many Puerto Ricans migrated
to the United States. Many moved to the East Coast, seeking opportunity in New York and other cities.
A series of reforms brought political change. In 1948, Puerto Ricans elected their governor for the first
time. In 1952, the island became a U.S. commonwealth. This status gave Puerto Rico control over its own
laws and finances but left decisions on defense and tariffs in U.S. hands. Although most Puerto Ricans
welcomed this change, some wanted more control over their affairs. They argued that the island would be
better off as either a U.S. state or an independent nation. In several elections held after 1967, however,
voters chose to remain a commonwealth.
4. U.S. Involvement in Asia and the Pacific
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After the Spanish-American War, the United States became a colonial power in Asia. Less than 500 miles
of open sea separated the American-controlled Philippines from China, the largest country in Asia. By
holding on to the Philippines, the United States would have greater access to Chinese trade and more
influence in Chinese affairs. The United States wanted to ensure free trade in the Asia-Pacific region.
The Philippines Fight for Independence from the U.S. During the Spanish-American War, the United
States captured the Philippines with the help of Filipino leader Emilio Aguinaldo. After the war, Aguinaldo
called for independence. He claimed that the United States had promised freedom for the islands.
The United States decided not to grant independence, however. President McKinley believed that the
Filipinos were not ready for self-government. He said that he wanted to "uplift and civilize and
Christianize" the Filipino people. He also wanted to maintain American control over the islands to prevent
another nation from seizing power.
Still, the Filipinos moved ahead with their plans for independence by writing a constitution and electing
Aguinaldo president. But the United States refused to recognize the new government. In February 1899,
fighting broke out between Filipino and American forces. The United States sent hundreds of thousands
of soldiers to the Philippines to put down the revolt. In battle after battle, the Filipino army was defeated.
Aguinaldo then switched to guerrilla tactics, launching quick strikes on American troops. The United
States responded with brutal force, destroying villages and herding civilians into prison camps. Mark
Twain, one of many Americans who opposed the U.S. policy toward the Philippines, wrote bitterly, "We
have pacified . . . the islanders and buried them; destroyed their fields; burned their villages; and turned
their widows and orphans out-of-doors . . . And so . . . we are a World Power."
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In 1901, the United States finally captured Aguinaldo. A year later, the fighting was over. The war had
lasted more than three years, at great human cost. More than 200,000 Filipinos and about 5,000
Americans had died.
After the war, the United States set up a central government for the islands. The United States built
schools and made improvements to Philippine harbors. It also established local governments and
encouraged Filipinos to participate in them. The United States controlled the Philippines for the next halfcentury, finally granting independence on July 4, 1946.
U.S. Businesses Prosper in Hawaii The Hawaiian Islands had been a focus of American interest long
before the Spanish-American War. Known as the "Crossroads of the Pacific," Hawaii was an important
stop for ships crossing the Pacific Ocean. In 1820, Protestant missionaries arrived in Hawaii. Within
decades most Hawaiians had converted to Christianity.
By the late 1800s, the United States regarded Hawaii as an economic asset. The economy of the islands
centered on the export of tropical crops, especially sugarcane and pineapple. White American planters
controlled the industry, shipping most of their crops to the United States and becoming wealthy and
powerful in the process.
At the time, Hawaii was still a kingdom ruled by a constitutional monarch. In 1891, Liliuokalani became
queen of Hawaii. She was a strong leader who resented the dominance of the wealthy white minority on
the islands. She established a new constitution that gave more power to native Hawaiians. But a small
group of white planters refused to accept the constitution and called on the American government for
help. In 1893, U.S. military forces landed and helped the planters overthrow the queen.
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The U.S. Annexes the Hawaiian Islands After the revolt, the white planters controlled the
government. They applied to Congress for annexation, hoping to make Hawaii part of the United
States. President Benjamin Harrison agreed to the islands' annexation. Then a new president, Grover
Cleveland, assumed office. After discovering the circumstances of the revolt, Cleveland withdrew the
annexation treaty and called on the planters to return Queen Liliuokalani to her throne. The planters
refused and instead proclaimed Hawaii an independent republic.
Throughout the 1890s, Americans continued to debate the question of annexing Hawaii. Those in favor
stressed the importance of Hawaii's location and the value of controlling the islands. They also hoped to
continue spreading Christianity and the American way of life in Hawaii. Those opposed to annexation
pointed out that colonization often caused problems. Some feared the introduction of new races and
cultures into the United States. Others thought it was un-American to deprive a people of their
sovereignty.
The American intervention in Hawaii produced deep resentment among native Hawaiians.Nevertheless,
during the Spanish-American War in 1898, Hawaii was annexed as Congress recognized its importance
as a port for the navy. Hawaii became a U.S. territory two years later. In 1959, it became a state, the only
one that is not part of North America.
U.S. Interest in China In the late 1800s, the United States also focused its attention on China. This huge
nation was rich in resources and offered a potentially large market for American goods.
In the 1890s, the United States and other foreign powers watched with interest as China and Japan
engaged in a war over Korea. This war revealed that China was neither strong nor stable. Russia,
France, and Germany supported China at the war's end and demanded favors in return. These powers,
along with Britain and Japan, began to carve out spheres of influence from Chinese territory. These
were areas in which a single nation controlled trading rights. In some cases, the foreign powers also
demanded land for military bases. As a result, much of China was soon carved into pieces of foreigndominated territory.
The United States wanted to prevent foreign colonization of China in order to maintain its own access to
Chinese markets. With this goal in mind, Secretary of State John Hay issued several foreign policy
statements, which became known collectively as the Open Door Policy. The first statement, in 1899,
called on foreign nations to allow free trade in China. Although some foreign powers gave vague replies,
Hay boldly announced that the Open Door Policy was "final and definitive."
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The U.S. Fights to Keep an Open Door to China The Chinese were deeply ashamed of their nation's
weakness. They were proud of their ancient heritage and furious with other countries for controlling China
and undermining Chinese traditions. Some Chinese tried to persuade their government to implement
reforms so that China could compete in the modern world and resist western influence.
One Chinese group eventually took up arms in an effort to restore national control. This group, called the
Righteous and Harmonious Fists, was commonly known as the Boxers. In 1900, the Boxers led
an insurrection, rising up to try to expel the "foreign devils" from China. The Boxers killed hundreds of
foreigners, including Christian missionaries, along with thousands of Chinese Christians. Within a few
months, however, the United States, Japan, and European powers had banded together to crush the
uprising.
Secretary of State Hay feared that foreign powers would attempt to use the Boxer Rebellion as an excuse
to take stronger control over China. He therefore issued a firmer statement of the Open Door Policy,
insisting that foreign nations not only allow free trade, but also respect Chinese independence. The other
nations did not object, mainly because they did not want to fight each other over China. As a result, China
remained open to American trade and influence.