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Chapter 11
Mediterranean Society: The Roman
Phase
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Establishment of Rome
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Legend of Romulus and Remus
Rome Founded 753 BCE
Indo-European migrants c. 2000 BCE
Bronze c. 1800 BCE, Iron c. 900 BCE
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The Etruscans 700 BCE
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Originally from Anatolia
Colonized Roman regions
Society declines late 6th c. BCE
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Greek maritime attacks
Celtic invasions from north in Gaul
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The Kingdom of Rome
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Etruscans deeply influence the early
development of Rome
Monarchy through 7th-6th c. BCE
Several Roman kings were Etruscans
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Streets, temples, public buildings
Major center of trade routes
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Establishment of the Republic
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509 BCE Romans overthrow last Etruscan
king
Roman forum built--political & civic center
Republican constitution
Executive responsibilities: 2 consuls= elected
by wealthy aristocrats
Senate=advised the consuls & ratified major
political decisions
Consuls & Senate represent the wealthy
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Social Conflict
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Patricians (aristocrats)
Plebeians (commoners)
Major class conflict 5th c. BCE
Plebeians allowed to elect tribunes for
representation
Rights expanded through 3rd c. BCE: could have
one consul come from their ranks
Yet 6-month appointments of dictators, when faced
with civil or military crisis
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Expansion of the Republic
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5th-4th c. BCE- Romans found large regional state
Took over iron industry 5th-4th c. BCE from
Etruscans=$$$
Expansion via military threat and incentives
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Tax exemptions
Trade privileges
Citizenship
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The Punic Wars
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Conflict with Carthage, 264-164 BCE
Carthage is leading power in Mediterranean
Three major wars over Sicilian grain supply
Later conflict with declining Hellenistic Empires
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215-148 fight Antigonids & Seleucids
Rome dominates Mediterranean by middle of 2nd C.
BCE
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Imperial Expansion and Domestic
Problems
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Land distribution
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Conquered lands fell into the hands of wealthy
elites
Development of large latifundia (plantations)
Unfair competition for smaller landholders
Latifundia operating costs are low causing small
landholders to go into debt in their attempt to
compete
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The Roman Empire to 146 BCE
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The Gracchi Brothers & Class
Conflict
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Tiberius and Gaius
Attempted to limit land holdings of aristocrats
Assassinated
Roman politicians & military leaders jockey for
power
Development of private armies made up of landless
peasants
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Gaius Marius (with reformers)
Lucius Cornelius Sulla (with aristocrats)
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Civil War
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87 BCE Gaius Marius takes Rome
Marius dies
Lucius Cornelius Sulla drives Marius’
supporters out 83 BCE
Reign of terror follows
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Julius Caesar
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Nephew of Marius
Escapes Sulla’s terror
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Rises to popularity
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Relatively young, well-timed trip abroad
Public spectacles (gladiators), victories in Gaul
Attacks Rome 49 BCE to ward of political dissidents
Names self Dictator for life in 46 BCE
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Caesar’s Policies
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Centralized military, governance under personal control
Redistribution of land to war veterans, other allies
Major building projects reduce urban unemployment
Extended citizenship to provinces
Aristocrats threatened, assassinate Caesar in 44 BCE in the
senate
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Augustus
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Civil conflict follows death of Caesar
Nephew Octavian fights Mark Antony &
Cleopatra (Ptolemaic ruler of Egypt)
Takes title Augustus 27 BCE
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Augustus’ Administration
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Monarchy disguised as a republic
Increasing centralization of political, military
power
Stabilized empire
Death in 14 CE
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Expansion and Integration of Empire
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Roman occupation of increasingly remote areas
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Gaul, Germany, Britain, Spain
Coordination of crop production, transport of natural
resources
Developed infrastructure, cities emerge and tempo
of society quickens
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The Roman Empire, c. 117 CE
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Pax Romana: “Roman Peace”
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27-250 CE
Economic & political integration
Facilitated trade, communication
Roman Roads
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Curbs, drainage, milestones
Postal service
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Roman Law
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Twelve Tables, c. 450 BCE
Applied throughout all Roman territories
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Innocent until proven guilty
Right to challenge accusers in court
Judges could challenge unfair laws
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Commercial Agriculture and Trade
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Latifundia: production for export
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Commercial agriculture
Agricultural specialization increases
Integration of Empire-wide economy & trade
Mediterranean Sea: Mare Nostrum, “our sea”
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The City of Rome
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Cash flow
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Massive construction projects
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Taxes, tribute, spoils, commerce
Statuary, monumental architecture, aqueducts
Technology: concrete
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Roman Cities & Attractions
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Imported goods
Underground sewage
Fresh water--aqueducts
Public baths
Circus Maximus
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250,000 spectators
Colosseum--50,000 spectators
Gladitorial Games
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Family and Society
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Pater Familias: “father of the family”
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Right to arrange marriages, sell children into
slavery
Women not allowed to inherit property
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Rarely enforced
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Wealth and Social Change
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Newly rich challenge aristocracy
Yet poor class increasing in size
Distraction from poverty: “Bread and
Circuses”---subsidized grain & public
entertainment
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Slavery
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2nd c. CE: estimated at 1/3 of Empire population
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Customary manumission at age 30
Agricultural work, quarries, mines
Extremely harsh conditions
Chain labor
Revolt under Spartacus, 73 BCE
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Roman Deities
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Polytheistic
Major gods, Greek influence
Absorption of gods from other cultures
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Cicero and Stoicism
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Marcus Tullius Cicero (106-46 BCE)
Major orator, writer
Influenced by Greek thought
Proponent of Stoicism---established as most
popular school of moral philosophy in Rome
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Mithraism: Religion of Salvation
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Dedicated to Mithras
From Zoroastrian myth: Mithra is god of Sun, light
Roman version emphasizes strength, courage,
discipline
Women not admitted into cult
Appealed to military
Cult of Isis also popular: Women
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Judaism in Early Rome
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Jewish monotheism at odds with most ancient
cultures
Refusal to recognize state gods
Repeated Jewish rebellions in Palestine
Romans finally crush Jewish self-governance in
Jewish Wars (66-70 CE)
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Synagogue at Capernaum
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The Essenes: Palestine
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Messianic Jewish Cult
Baptism in water
Ascetic lifestyle
Dead Sea Scrolls
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Jesus of Nazareth
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Charismatic Jewish teacher
Born c. 4 BCE
Moral code, reputation for miracle-working
Romans fear instigation of rebellion, crucify
Jesus, early 30s CE
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Jesus’ Early Followers
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Belief in Jesus’ resurrection, divine nature
Title Christ: “Anointed One”
Teachings recorded in New Testament
Believe Jesus is the son of God.
What is the Old Testament?
Do Jews believe in Jesus?
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Paul of Tarsus
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Extends teachings far beyond Jewish circles
Intensive travel, missionary activity
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Early Christian Communities
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Local leaders: Bishops
Regional variation in doctrine and ritual
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Nature of resurrection (Actual vs. spiritual)
Role of women
Gradual acceptance of core texts
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The New Testament
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Growth of Early Christianity
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Roman persecution
Yet dramatic expansion of Christianity
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Especially with dispossessed, disenfranchised
classes
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Urban poor
Women
What was the appeal of Christianity?
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