Download File chapter 5-the skeletal system

Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology
Elaine N. Marieb
Seventh Edition
Chapter 5
The Skeletal System
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The Skeletal System
 Parts of the skeletal system
 Bones (skeleton)
 Joints
 Cartilages
 Ligaments (bone to bone)(tendon=bone to
muscle)
 Divided into two divisions
 Axial skeleton
 Appendicular skeleton – limbs and girdle
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Slide 5.1
Functions of Bones
 Support of the body
 Protection of soft organs
 Movement due to attached skeletal
muscles
 Storage of minerals and fats
 Blood cell formation
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Slide 5.2
Bones of the Human Body
 The skeleton has 206 bones
 Two basic types of bone tissue
 Compact bone
 Homogeneous
 Spongy bone
 Small needle-like
pieces of bone
 Many open spaces
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Figure 5.2b
Slide 5.3
Classification of Bones
 Long bones
 Typically longer than wide
 Have a shaft with heads at both ends
 Contain mostly compact bone
• Examples: Femur, humerus
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Slide 5.4a
Classification of Bones
 Short bones
 Generally cube-shape
 Contain mostly spongy bone
 Examples: Carpals, tarsals
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Slide 5.4b
Classification of Bones on the
Basis of Shape
Figure 5.1
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Slide 5.4c
Classification of Bones
 Flat bones
 Thin and flattened
 Usually curved
 Thin layers of compact bone around a layer
of spongy bone
 Examples: Skull, ribs, sternum
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Slide 5.5a
Classification of Bones
 Irregular bones
 Irregular shape
 Do not fit into other bone classification
categories
 Example: Vertebrae and hip
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Slide 5.5b
Classification of Bones on the
Basis of Shape
Figure 5.1
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Slide 5.5c
Gross Anatomy of a Long Bone
 Diaphysis
 Shaft
 Composed of
compact bone
 Epiphysis
 Ends of the bone
 Composed mostly of
spongy bone
Figure 5.2a
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Slide 5.6
Structures of a Long Bone
 Periosteum
 Outside covering of
the diaphysis
 Fibrous connective
tissue membrane
 Sharpey’s fibers
 Secure periosteum to
underlying bone
 Arteries
 Supply bone cells
with nutrients
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Figure 5.2c
Slide 5.7
Structures of a Long Bone
 Articular cartilage
 Covers the
external surface of
the epiphyses
 Made of hyaline
cartilage
 Decreases friction
at joint surfaces
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Figure 5.2a
Slide 5.8a
Structures of a Long Bone
 Medullary cavity
 Cavity of the shaft
 Contains yellow
marrow (mostly fat)
in adults
 Contains red marrow
(for blood cell
formation) in infants
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Figure 5.2a
Slide 5.8b
Bone Marrow Transplantation
• A bone marrow transplant may be used to treat patients who have a
form of cancer such as leukemia, lymphoma, or breast cancer.
• What is bone marrow?
Bone marrow is the spongy tissue found inside bone. The bone marrow
in the breast bone, skull, hips, ribs, and spine contains stem cells that
produce the body's blood cells. The three kinds of blood cells that the
body needs to function are made in the bone marrow:
• Red blood cells carry oxygen to all parts of the body and remove
wastes from organs and tissues
• White blood cells are part of the immune system which helps your
body fight infection and illness
• Platelets help blood to clot to control bleeding
Why is bone marrow transplanted?
•
•
•
•
In patients with certain forms of cancer, the stem cells produce an excessive
number of defective or immature blood cells (as in leukemia). To eliminate the
cancer, very high doses of chemotherapy and sometimes radiation therapy are
given. These high-dose cancer-fighting treatments are needed to destroy the
abnormal stem cells and blood cells.
However, the treatments also damage normal cells found in bone marrow.
After the cancer treatments, healthy bone marrow (in the form of a transplant)
is given to restore normal stem cell function. The chemotherapy not only helps
destroy cancer cells but it also prepares the body to receive the transplanted
marrow so it will not be rejected.
Some patients may receive a bone marrow transplant to treat aplastic anemia
(in which the patient has low blood counts) and some immune deficiency
diseases. Chemotherapy is given to these patients to suppress the immune
system, allowing the transplanted marrow the best condition in which to grow.
Without chemotherapy, the patient's own immune system would likely destroy
transplanted marrow before it has a chance to function.
In a successful bone marrow transplant, the new bone marrow migrates to the
large bone cavities (breast bone, skull, hips, ribs, and spine), engrafts and
begins producing normal blood cells. A bone marrow transplant does not
ensure that the disease will not recur; however, it can increase the chances of a
cure or at least prolong the amount of time the patient is disease-free.
Bone Marrow continued…
•
•
•
•
Who is a candidate for a bone marrow transplant?
The decision to prescribe a bone marrow transplant is always made on an
individual basis. Your doctor will consider your age, general physical
condition, diagnosis, and stage of the disease. Your doctor will also make sure
you understand the potential benefits and risks of the transplant procedure.
Where does the transplanted bone marrow come from?
Bone marrow given during a transplant either comes from yourself
(autologous) or from a donor whose bone marrow matches your (allogeneic).
Autologous bone marrow transplants
An autologous bone marrow transplant involves harvesting your own bone
marrow, preserving and storing it in frozen form, and later, after high-dose
chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy, infusing it back into your body.
Autologous bone marrow transplants are possible if the disease affecting the
bone marrow is in remission, or if the condition being treated doesn't involve
the bone marrow (as in breast cancer).
Allogeneic bone marrow transplants
An allogeneic bone marrow transplant involves harvesting bone marrow from
a family member or an unrelated donor. The harvested marrow is transplanted
after you have received high-dose chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy.
Whether the bone marrow donor is related or not, it must perfectly match your
bone marrow.
Bone Marrow cont….
•
•
•
•
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•
Bone marrow harvesting
Bone marrow is withdrawn through a needle inserted into a bone in the hip.
This procedure is performed in the operating room and the patient is given
general anesthesia (pain-relieving medication that puts you to sleep). If your
own bone marrow can not be used for transplantation and if a donor is not
found, peripheral stem cells may be harvested from your circulating blood.
Chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy
Very high doses of chemotherapy and/or radiation therapy are given to destroy
the abnormal stem cells and blood cells. They are also given to prepare your
body to receive the bone marrow transplant.
The high dose therapy has a rigorous effect on your body, wiping out your
normal bone marrow. As a result, your blood counts (number of red blood
cells, white blood cells, and platelets) quickly fall to low levels.
During this phase of treatment, you will be given intravenous fluids to flush
out your kidneys and minimize the damage from chemotherapy. You will also
be given medications to control nausea, since chemotherapy often causes
nausea and vomiting.
Because you are in a fragile state of health and do not have enough white
blood cells to protect you from infection, you will be isolated in your hospital
room until after the new bone marrow begins to grow. Your health care
providers will give you specific guidelines about the isolation procedure.
What happens during the transplant?
The day you receive your bone marrow transplant, the harvested bone marrow
Bone Markings - Page 119
 Surface features of bones
 Sites of attachments for muscles, tendons,
and ligaments
 Passages for nerves and blood vessels
 Categories of bone markings
 Projections and processes – grow out from the
bone surface
 Depressions or cavities – indentations
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Slide 5.9
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
 Osteon (Haversian System)
 A unit of bone
 Central (Haversian) canal
 Opening in the center of an osteon
 Carries blood vessels and nerves
 Perforating (Volkman’s) canal
 Canal perpendicular to the central canal
 Carries blood vessels and nerves
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Slide
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
Figure 5.3
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Slide
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
 Lacunae
 Cavities containing
bone cells
(osteocytes)
 Arranged in
concentric rings
 Lamellae
 Rings around the
central canal
 Sites of lacunae
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Figure 5.3
Slide
Microscopic Anatomy of Bone
 Canaliculi
 Tiny canals
 Radiate from the
central canal to
lacunae
 Form a transport
system
Figure 5.3
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Slide
Changes in the Human Skeleton
 In embryos, the skeleton is primarily hyaline
cartilage
 During development, much of this cartilage
is replaced by bone
 Cartilage remains in isolated areas
 Bridge of the nose
 Parts of ribs
 Joints
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Slide 5.12
Bone Growth
 Epiphyseal plates allow for growth of
long bone during childhood
 New cartilage is continuously formed
 Older cartilage becomes ossified
 Cartilage is broken down
 Bone replaces cartilage
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Slide
Bone Growth
 Bones are remodeled and lengthened
until growth stops
 Bones change shape somewhat
 Bones grow in width
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Slide
Long Bone Formation and Growth
Figure 5.4a
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Slide
Types of Bone Cells
 Osteocytes
 Mature bone cells
 Osteoblasts
 Bone-forming cells
 Osteoclasts
 Bone-destroying cells
 Break down bone matrix for remodeling and
release of calcium
 Bone remodeling is a process by both
osteoblasts and osteoclasts
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Slide 5.15
Osteoporosis
website
ERT website Menopause site
Bone Fractures
 A break in a bone
 Types of bone fractures
 Closed (simple) fracture – break that does not
penetrate the skin
 Open (compound) fracture – broken bone
penetrates through the skin
 Bone fractures are treated by reduction
and immobilization
 Realignment of the bone
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Slide 5.16
Common Types of Fractures
Table 5.2
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Slide 5.17
Repair of Bone Fractures
 Hematoma (blood-filled swelling) is
formed
 Break is splinted by fibrocartilage to
form a callus
 Fibrocartilage callus is replaced by a
bony callus
 Bony callus is remodeled to form a
permanent patch
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Slide 5.18
Stages in the Healing of a Bone
Fracture
Figure 5.5
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Slide 5.19
The Axial Skeleton
 Forms the longitudinal part of the body
 Divided into three parts
 Skull
 Vertebral column
 Bony thorax
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Slide
The Axial Skeleton
Figure 5.6
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Slide
The Skull
 Two sets of bones
 Cranium
 Facial bones
 Bones are joined by sutures
 Only the mandible is attached by a
freely movable joint
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Slide
The Skull
Figure 5.7
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Bones of the Skull
Figure 5.11
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Slide 5.22
Deviated Nasal Septum website
Human Skull, Superior View
Figure 5.8
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Slide 5.23
Human Skull, Inferior View
Figure 5.9
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Slide 5.24
TMJ website
TMJ continued…
•
For me the connection is fairly obvious when
viewing radiological images of people with
atlas subluxations it becomes patently
obvious that the jaw mandible and hence the
TMJ are out of alignment. The crooked or
tilted head (X-ray opposite) sitting atop the
cervical spine results in non-alignment or
disarticulation of the TMJ in the cranial fossa
(recess). The joints do not work properly,
with the disc being captured during opening
and/or closing, and the neck and shoulder
muscles going into painful spasm during the
normal process of eating.
Black Eye website
more info
Paranasal Sinuses
 Hollow portions of bones surrounding
the nasal cavity
Figure 5.10
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Paranasal Sinuses
 Functions of paranasal sinuses
 Lighten the skull
 Give resonance and amplification to voice
Figure 5.10
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Sinusitis website
Adenoids website
The Hyoid Bone
 The only bone that
does not articulate
with another bone
 Serves as a
moveable base for
the tongue
Figure 5.12
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Slide 5.26
The Fetal Skull
 The fetal skull is
large compared
to the infants
total body length
Figure 5.13
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Slide
The Fetal Skull More info
 Fontanelles –
fibrous membranes
connecting the
cranial bones
 Allow the brain
to grow
 Convert to bone
within 24 months
after birth
Figure 5.13
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Slide
Thoracic, Lumbar, Sacrum, Coccyx
• 12 thoracic vertebrae,
larger than the cervical
vertebrae
• 5 lumbar vertebrae have
massive block-like bodies;
sturdiest of the vertebrae
• Sacrum formed by the
fusion of five vertebrae
• Coccyx formed from the
fusion of three to five tiny,
irregularly shaped
vertebrae, human
“tailbone”
The Vertebral Column
 Vertebrae
separated by
intervertebral discs
 The spine has a
normal curvature
 Each vertebrae is
given a name
according to its
location
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Figure 5.14
Slide 5.28
Structure of a Typical Vertebrae
Figure 5.16
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Slide 5.29
Abnormal Spine Curvatures
• Three common types of abnormal spine curvatures:
scoliosis, kyphosis, lordosis
• These abnormalities may be present at birth or
result from disease, poor posture, or unequal pull
on the spine
Scoliosis/Lordosis/Kyphosis
Subluxation of vertebrae
Slipped Disc
“Herniated Disc”
Whiplash website view
Sciatica
Sciatica-website
The Bony Thorax
 Forms a
cage to
protect
major
organs
Figure 5.19a
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Slide
The Bony Thorax
 Made-up of
three parts
 Sternum
 Ribs
 Thoracic
vertebrae
Figure 5.19a
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Slide
The Appendicular Skeleton
 Limbs (appendages)
 Pectoral girdle
 Pelvic girdle
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Slide
The Appendicular Skeleton
Figure 5.6c
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The Pectoral (Shoulder) Girdle
 Composed of two bones
 Clavicle – collarbone
 Scapula – shoulder blade
 These bones allow the upper limb to
have exceptionally free movement
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Slide 5.33
Bones of the Shoulder Girdle
Figure 5.20a, b
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Bones of the Upper Limb
 The arm is
formed by a
single bone
 Humerus
Figure 5.21a, b
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Bones of the Upper Limb
• The forearm
has two bones
• Ulna
• Radius
Figure 5.21c
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Slide
Bones of the Upper Limb
 The hand
 Carpals – wrist
 Metacarpals –
palm
 Phalanges –
fingers
Figure 5.22
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Slide 5.36
Bones of the Pelvic Girdle
 Hip bones
 Composed of three pair of fused bones
 Ilium
 Ischium
 Pubic bone
 The total weight of the upper body rests on the
pelvis
 Protects several organs
 Reproductive organs
 Urinary bladder
 Part of the large intestine
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Slide 5.37
The Pelvis
Figure 5.23a
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Gender Differences of the Pelvis
Figure 5.23c
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Slide 5.39
Bones of the Lower Limbs
 The thigh has
one bone
 Femur – thigh
bone
Figure 5.35a, b
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Bones of the Lower Limbs
 The leg has
two bones
 Tibia
 Fibula
Figure 5.35c
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Bones of the Lower Limbs
 The foot
 Tarsus – ankle
 Metatarsals –
sole
 Phalanges –
toes
Figure 5.25
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Slide 5.41
Joints
 Articulations of bones
 Functions of joints
 Hold bones together
 Allow for mobility
 Ways joints are classified
 Functionally
 Structurally
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Slide 5.43
Synovial joint
Knee joint
Arthroscopic Knee Surgery
Functional Classification of Joints
 Synarthroses – immovable joints
 Amphiarthroses – slightly moveable
joints
 Diarthroses – freely moveable joints
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Slide 5.44
Structural Classification of Joints
 Fibrous joints
 Generally immovable
 Cartilaginous joints
 Immovable or slightly moveable
 Synovial joints
 Freely moveable
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Slide 5.45
Fibrous Joints
 Bones united by fibrous tissue –
synarthrosis or largely immovable.
Figure 5.27d, e
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Slide 5.46
Cartilaginous Joints – mostly
amphiarthrosis
 Bones connected by cartilage
 Examples
 Pubic
symphysis
 Intervertebral
joints
Figure 5.27b, c
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Slide 5.47
Synovial Joints
 Articulating
bones are
separated by a
joint cavity
 Synovial fluid
is found in the
joint cavity
Figure 5.27f–h
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Slide 5.48
Features of Synovial JointsDiarthroses
 Articular cartilage (hyaline cartilage)
covers the ends of bones
 Joint surfaces are enclosed by a fibrous
articular capsule
 Have a joint cavity filled with synovial
fluid
 Ligaments reinforce the joint
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Slide 5.49
Structures Associated with the
Synovial Joint
 Bursae – flattened fibrous sacs
 Lined with synovial membranes
 Filled with synovial fluid
 Not actually part of the joint
 Tendon sheath
 Elongated bursa that wraps around a tendon
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Slide 5.50
The Synovial Joint
Figure 5.28
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Slide 5.51
Rotator Cuff website
Types of Synovial Joints Based on
Shape
Figure 5.29a–c
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Types of Synovial Joints Based on
Shape
Figure 5.29d–f
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Inflammatory Conditions
Associated with Joints
 Bursitis – inflammation of a bursa usually
caused by a blow or friction
 Tendonitis – inflammation of tendon sheaths
 Arthritis – inflammatory or degenerative
diseases of joints
 Over 100 different types
 The most widespread crippling disease in the
United States
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Slide 5.53
Clinical Forms of Arthritis
 Osteoarthritis “old-age” “weather”
 Most common chronic arthritis
 Probably related to normal aging processes
 “wear-and-tear”
 Weight-bearing (larger joints) first
 Rheumatoid arthritis
 Women in 30’s
 An autoimmune disease – the immune system attacks
the joints
 Symptoms begin with bilateral inflammation of certain
joints (smaller joints first)
 Often leads to deformities
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Clinical Forms of Arthritis
 Gouty Arthritis “The Gout”
 Inflammation of joints is caused by a
deposition of uric acid crystals from the
blood
 Can usually be controlled with diet
 Older, obese men at highest risk
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