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Schizophrenia & Psychoses A Clinical Introduction Godfrey D. Pearlson, M.D. Neuropsychiatry Research Center Institute of Living Yale University School of Medicine Schizophrenia - Outline 1. Phenomenology 2. Epidemiology 3. Etiology - neurodevelopmental & genetic factors 4. Spectrum disorders, biomarkers, 5. Treatments 6. Psychotic mood disorders Core Concepts- 1 Affective Disorder: Delirium: Dementia: Schizophrenia: disturbance of mood disturbance of consciousness disturbance of (a prior level of) cognition ?????????????????????? No obvious pathognomonic symptoms or core“theme”. Core Concepts II 1. Because it has no pathognomonic symptoms, schizophrenia is a diagnosis of exclusion. 2. Widespread agreement that schizophrenia is a heterogeneous disorder; but no agreement on sub-typing. 3. Traditional subtypes (e.g. hebephrenic, paranoid) mutate over time. DELIRIUM PLUS DISTURBED CONSCIOUSNESS DEMENTIA PLUS COGNITIVE DECLINE AFFECTIVE DISORDER PLUS CHANGE IN MOOD, SELF-ATTITUDE AND VITAL SENSE SCHIZOPHRENIA HALLUCINATIONS, DELUSIONS, FORMAL THOUGHT DISORDER SCHIZOPHRENIA– CASE STUDY 1 Frank S. 31 y.o. single WM Upper middle class family, no FH of mental illness Mother’s pregnancy – ‘flu’ at 15 weeks, forceps delivery, Apgar in normal range Shy, slightly withdrawn child – ‘grew out of it’ by age 14. IQ = 128 FS. College – electrical engineering major. All ‘A’ grades in freshman year. Sophomore year – age 20, increasingly withdrawn, preoccupied, ‘distant’, odd philosophical worries x 6 months. SCHIZOPHRENIA– CASE STUDY 2 Became convinced messages on TV about him, “aliens reading my mind.” “White House controlling my body.” Auditory hallucinations of “robot voices” saying good and bad things about him, arguing. Showed up at police HQ to warn of “plots”, taken to ER for evaluation Alert, O x 3. Not elated or depressed. MMS – 30/30. Urine Toxicology screen negative. Physical exam and labs all WNL. Brain MRI WNL. SCHIZOPHRENIA– CASE STUDY 3 Hospitalized three weeks Partial response to Haloperidol Family “lost his spark”……but not due to medications Unable to complete college Halfway house – small apartment Volunteer for state agency 3 subsequent hospitalizations in 10 years Seclusive, poor self-care Some improvement on olanzapine – initial gain Now on ziprasodone – variable compliance Positive and Negative Symptoms Positive Delusions Hallucinations Incoherence Negative/Deficit Poverty of speech Flat affect Social Withdrawal Bizarre behavior Apathy (Remember-no pathognomonic symptoms.) Source: DSM-IV Draft Criteria, 1993 Cognitive Deficits An essential part of the syndrome. Working Memory Set Shifting Verbal Memory Attention / Continuous Performance Epidemiology of Schizophrenia About 1% prevalence in the population Occurs in all cultures, all socioeconomic groups Peak onset in men, ages 15 to 25 Peak onset in women, ages 22 to 30 Prevalence ultimately equal in men and women 50% of patients attempt suicide, 10% succeed Most expensive of all mental disorders: Chronic but non-fatal, many incarcerated, homeless – Direct costs = 0.4% of the GNP – Indirect costs = 1.6% of the GNP 20-year Follow-up of Patients with SZ (Iceland) All first-episode SZ diagnosed in 1966 to 1967 22% mortality and 9% suicide 60% never married; of the rest, most divorced 71% had persistent symptoms despite neuroleptic treatment 95% had impaired social relationships 65% worked fewer than 5 months per year 29% had “an acceptable level of health” Medical Illnesses in Psychosis Proposed Etiology Genetic predisposition / vulnerability Brain mal-development in utero (genetic, toxic, infective) Pregnancy & birth complications Early psychosocial experience Source: Mednick et al., 1991 GENE CELL SYSTEM BEHAVIOR Sensory motor Integration Gene Cell System Behavior Multiple susceptibility alleles, each of small effect, low penetrance, that act in concert Subtle metabolic abnormalities Molecular bottlenecks? Abnormal information processing Cognitive inefficiency – memory and control processes, Biomarkers Not ≡ illness, e.g. as found in unaffected siblings Complex functional interactions Emergent phenomena (After Weinberger, 2003) Functioning PHASES OF SCHIZOPHRENIA PREMORBID PRODROME Course of Illness ACTIVE Disease Genes Viral Infection Environmental Toxins Peri-natal/Birth Complications TRIGGERS: Environmental Stress Biological Factors Drug Use Biological Vulnerability Structure Biochem Function Age 0 Neurol + Cognitive Deficits 5 Premorbid Early Negative Sx Weak Positive Sx 12 15 Early Prodrome Emerging Psychotic Sx 18 Late Prodrome 21 Diagnostic Criteria for Schizophrenia • DSM-IV -Based on phenomenology • Highly reliable, but of dubious validity • Could have been written 100 years ago (in fact they were, essentially) • No laboratory test, even to confirm diagnosis, let alone a diagnostic test related to pathophysiology DIABETES SCHIZOPHRENIA Etiology • Pathology • Biologic Definition/Test • Genes (partial) • (partial) Biomarkers (partial) Clues from Type-2 Diabetes “Spectrum Cases” • Impaired GTT + impaired fasting glucose ~ 40% of obese adults • Gestational DM (~ 10% of pregnant women) • Steroid-induced DM (~ 30% on hi-dose systemic steroids) All of the above are substantially increased in first-degree relatives of Type-2 diabetics (about 50% have insulin resistance), 15% diabetes, 25% abnormal GTT. Schizotypy and Spectrum Conditions 1 Early researchers into schizophrenia noticed that unaffected family members exhibited oddities and eccentricities. Interpretation: 1. Consequence of close association with someone whose behavior was disturbed or disturbing 2. Lesser, “dilute” form of the disorder Schizotypy and Spectrum Conditions 2 Kety’s genetic studies with the Danish twin and disease registries, & Kendler’s Irish kindreds confirm these ideas. Mild or dilute forms of schizophrenia, or oddities of thought and behavior occur more commonly among close relatives of patients with schizophrenia than in the population at large. Genetic explanations best fit the facts. These individuals have vulnerability genes, insufficient for full-fledged schizophrenia. < Introduces concept of biomarkers > SCHIZOPHRENIA VULNERABILITY MARKERS “Biomarkers” BIOMARKERS Definition: Physiological and clinical phenomena found in association with a disorder, which are quantifiable, and presumed to be more closely connected to the vulnerability gene than the illness diagnosis. Schizophrenia Biomarkers • • • • • • • • • • Gene markers – a few in last 3 yrs. Electrophysiology – P-300, N-400, P450 Psychophysiology – oculomotor, PPI Brain structure – Volumes of LV, STG, Hippo Brain Function – PET, fMRI with WCST, WM Brain Chemistry – DA receptors, release Development – neurologic, cognitive, social Clinical exam – MPA’s, ‘soft’ neurologic signs Cognition – WM, attention Niacin flush, fingerprints Biomarkers and Schizophrenia Summary: • Promising avenue of research. • Approach very useful in diabetes, hypertension- may work for schizophrenia. Schizophrenia and Cognition Major defects in: • Working memory • Executive functioning (abstraction, problem solving, conceptualization, sequencing, inhibition, planning) • • • Attention Verbal memory Semantic tasks Symptoms suggest frontal lobe dysfunction Magnitude of Cognitive Deficits in Schizophrenia Test Domain Md (mean effect size difference) # of studies % Patients Below Median Verbal Memory Memory 1.41 31 78 Wisconsin Card Sort Executive 0.88 Function 43 69 1.15 29 75 Continuous Performance Sustained 1.16 Attention 14 75 Bilateral Motor Skill Motor 5 77 Verbal Fluency 1.3 Heinrichs RW, Zakanis KK, Neuropsychology 2: 426-445 Cognitive Deficits in Schizophrenia Core Features of Illness Precede Onset of Illness – ½ SD lower IQ – Reading difficulties in grade through high school – Delayed onset of hand dominance Present at Disease Onset Continued… Sources: Green 1996; Heinrichs and Zakzanis 1998; Saykin 1991, 1994 Cognitive Deficits in Schizophrenia Resist Medication Effects Persist into Senescence May Predict Psychosocial Function Better Than Positive or Negative Symptoms Core Cognitive Domains Compromised in Schizophrenia Sustained attention Working memory Set shifting Verbal Memory Problem solving Abstraction These suggest compromised neural circuits Symptoms suggestive of frontal lobe dysfunction Emotional dullness Impaired judgment Poor initiative, motivation, drive Lack of insight Difficulty in planning Impaired problem-solving/abstract reasoning Decreased concern for personal hygiene Social withdrawal Cognitive Rehabilitation RemediationRepeated practice and acquisition of compensatory strategies on cognitive exercises designed to engage under-functioning brain circuits Adaptation History of Antipsychotic Medications Dopamine and other Neurotransmitters Atypical neuroleptics • Off D2 graph • Other receptors • Antipsychotic with EPS! • Effective against negative symptoms (late!) • Atypically expensive Annual Cost Estimates of Typical Doses Clozaril (Sandoz) $3,694 , 5 mg. BID, Haldol (McNeil) $944 Haldol (Generic) $254 3 mg. BID, Risperdal (Janssen) $2,843 (Not including monitoring which adds significant extra cost) 10mg of Zyprexa $1/mg = $3,650 (Pfizer) Psychosis in Mood Disorders Phenomenology and Schneider’s First-Rank Symptoms Kurt Schneider, 1939, places high value on certain symptoms in the diagnosis of schizophrenia, naming them “ first rank symptoms”. These include: audible thoughts, voices heard arguing, voices heard commenting on one's actions, somatic passivity experiences, thought withdrawal & diffusion, delusional perception, and “made” impulses, drives and volitional acts experienced by the patient as the work or influence of others. “When any of these modes of experience is undeniably present and no basis of somatic illness can be found, we may make the decisive clinical diagnosis of schizophrenia.” Why we Downgraded FRS Three sets of observations tend to undermine this distinction. These come from the work of Gabrielle Carlson, Carpenter and Strauss and the St. Louis group. First-rank symptoms occur commonly in cases of mania (up to 40%). Not useful in terms of diagnostic distinction, do not predict outcome of illness or response to treatment. Carlson describes a “third stage" of mania Manifested by bizarre behavior, moodincongruent hallucinations & delusions paranoia and extreme dysphoria. “Despite symptoms that might have otherwise prompted the diagnosis of schizophrenia, …. patients appeared clearly manic both earlier in the course and later as the episode was resolving.” Example from Carlson: Patient frightened, talking and crying constantly, pacing. “I will never get out”. “I have cats eyes”. “He crawls around inside me, and he cannot stand the light.” Profane, hypersexual, uncooperative. “Oh please let me die, I can’t take it anymore”. “National Institute of Hell.” Following treatment, patient reverted to a typical manic state: hypersexual, bizarre attire (wearing three dresses at a time), grandiose, incessant talking. Chromosomal locations of potential BP/SZ overlap genes. Berretini and others Separate Genes May Code for Sub-Syndromes ? E.G. Psychosis, Mood Instability Assortative Mating Muddies the Waters ? Summary: Levels of identification of diseases Etiology: e.g. genes, viral infections Pathophysiology: e.g. developmental or degenerative process Brain structure: e.g. structures, circuits Brain function: e.g. neurotransmitters, rCBF, metabolism Cognitive function: e.g. memory, attention, executive function Epidemiology: e.g. sex ratios, age cohort effects Clinical presentation: e.g. symptoms, age of onset, course Response to treatment GENE CELL SYSTEM BEHAVIOR THANK YOU!