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Resistance and Conflict in Sport
Learning Outcomes
Learning Outcomes
• Discuss Sports Violence
• Understand Sanctioned Aggressive Behavior
• Understand Unsanctioned Aggressive
Behavior
• Identify 3 levels of the sports violence
typology
• Clarify the 3 levels of the sports violence
typology
• Discuss reasons women participate in violent
sport.
• Define what is meant by the term
“HOOLIGAN”
• Discuss the phenomenon of hooliganism in
detail.
• Discuss spectator violence and reasons this
happens at sporting events.
Discussion
• How do you feel when your team loses a game?
• Would these feelings ever lead to violence?
• Do you think sport is becoming more violent or
do we just see more of it due to increased media
coverage?
• Do famous sport stars have a responsibility to
behave well off the field- or does their private life
have nothing to do with their sporting persona?
Do women who play violent sport lose femininity?
Introduction
• Ancient society-sport was rough
• Sports became specialized-more spectators
than participators
• Roman empire-Violence in sport accepted and
endorsed as norm by spectators
• Presently-sport violence seen as soc prb and
extensive media coverage of violence in sport(
is sport violence increasing or is media
coverage of it increasing)
• Acc to Jon Hardcastle-growing dissatisfaction with
sport violence despite constant media focus on it.
• Hardcastle-sports rules, equipment design and
arenas have changed to reduce violence. Despite
this spectators and officials see sport violence as
to be expected.
• Justified by reasoning that it is part of the game,
enjoyed by fans and ignored by coaches unless a
played is cited for an incident
Sports Violence
• Definition-behaviour that causes harm, occurs
outside the rules of sport, and is unrelated to
competitive objectives of the sport (Terry and
Jackson, 1985. cited in Kerr 2005).
• Leonard (1988) two (2) forms of aggression in
sports: “instrumental aggression”, which is nonemotional and task oriented and “reactive
aggression” that has an underlying emotional
component, with harm as goal. Violence is
outcome of reactive aggression.
Theories on violence in Sport
three basic theories :
• Biological Theory;
• Psychological Theory;
• Social Learning Theory
Biological Theory
The biological theory, proposed by Nobel
Prize winner Konrad Lorenz, sees aggression
as basic, inherent human characteristic.
Within this context, sport is seen as a socially
acceptable way to discharge built-up
aggression, a safety valve.
Psychological Theory
• aggression caused by frustration;
• situational
• Frustration results when efforts to reach a
goal blocked.
• frustration can be caused by questionable
calls by officials, failure to make a play, injuries
that interfere with optimum performance,
heckling from spectators, taunts by coaches,
players, fans
Social Learning Theory
• aggressive behavior learned - modeling
•reinforced by rewards and punishments
Young athletes see sports heroes as role models and imitate them.
• Parents, coaches and teammates are models who may
demonstrate support for an aggressive style of play
When players are violent and no consequence for their actions —
or no consistency in punishment— message is “violence is fine,
just don’t get caught”.
Reinforcement rewards
-praise, trophies, starting position, respect of friends and family.
•Kerr (2005) seeing professional players huge salaries, in spite of
(or because of) aggressive style of play reinforces violence
acceptable in sport.
• Terry and Jackson (1985) cited in Kerr (2005),
reinforcement for acts of violence may come
from three sources including coaches,
teammates, family, friends as well as the
structure of the game and implementation of
rules by officials and governing bodies.
they suggest that it is also the attitudes of
fans, the media, courts, and society that
reinforce this.
Sanctioned Versus Unsanctioned
Violence in Sport
• George Orwell (1950): “Serious sport nothing to
do with fair play. Bound with hatred, jealousy,
boastfulness, disregard of rules and sadistic
pleasure in witnessing violence; in other words it
is war minus the shooting.”
• rugby, Brink (1995) : “Because it is so relentless
by nature, borders
between permissible and inadmissible not always
clear-cut. ”
He says there is clear distinction between hard
play and foul play
• foul play -underhanded, malicious, treacherous violence,
not supposed to be exposed, not done to further the game
, but satisfy private goals of rage or revenge — “about the
player, not team” (Brink, 1995).
• inadmissible and foul play - acts of unsanctioned violence
falls outside laws of the game (Kerr, 2005).
• permissible and hard play - acts of sanctioned
violence within laws of rugby union
• Kerr (2002) : “controversial as it may sound, it should be
emphasized that sanctioned violence and aggression are
necessary part of team contact sports, and those who take
part know there are risks of physical injury ,sometimes
even death.’
• Sports psychologists -sanctioned aggression
and violence can
be primary source of players excitement,
pleasure, and satisfaction and a major factor
in motivating participation (Kerr, 1997; Novak,
1976).
This argument not made to excuse
unsanctioned aggression and violence, but to
understand the real nature of these sports
and the people who play them
The Sports-Violence Typology
in certain sports, violence acceptable — even expected — sanctioned
violence.
• sociologists such as Michael Smith developed sports-violence
typology-:
• three categories of violence:
• “brutal body contact” integral to some sports. Conforms to rules
of the sport , legitimate even when same behavior outside the
sports context is criminal.
Examples rugby ,gridiron football, boxing, wrestling, ice hockey,
soccer and Asian martial arts.
• Participants in these sports accept rough contact is part of the
sport. They have also consented to the probability of minor injury
and possibility of major injury
•
“borderline violence”,- violate official rules, but accepted by players
and fans as legitimate part of game.
• EG. fistfight in ice hockey or an intentional foul in soccer, rarely
subject to legal proceedings , dealt with by penalties. eg in 1997
Nevada Boxing Commission censured and banned heavyweight
boxer Mike Tyson for biting his opponent.
• criminal violence-behavior extremely and intentionally violent
handled legally , not considered part of game .
Violence in sport, even sanctioned violence, handled carefully by
media -not to convey admiration or condemnation . Sometimes, a
journalist will clearly voice their opinion.
“...the first time someone bleeds or is hit and you see the pain in
their face. - - or when one person is hurt you see the surge in the
other athlete trying to put him away, the killer instinct, the
aggression that is bred out of us” Reporter Stephen Brunt.
Why Women Participate In Violent
Sport
•
•
camaraderie found in certain team sports,
the physical contact of the sport
•
physical toughness of the sport.
•
having to draw on inner strength and determination
The views and opinions gathered by Lawler during research with female
athletes varied
•
some clearly participate in more violent sport because they enjoy mental and
physical challenge of the sport, others
•
•
it provides physical release to aggression
the game defines them.
•
dominant sentiment-the physicality gave confidence- sense of empowerment
(Lawler, 2002).
HOOLIGANISM
• “unruly and destructive behavior”, usually associated with
gangs of young people.
• appeared in 1898 London police report.
• One theory - the name comes from an hoodlum from
London Patrick Hooligan
• another -from a street gang in lslington named “Hooley”,
• a third - “Hooley” an Irish word, meaning wild, spirited
party (Dunning et al, 1988).
• recent understanding of the word linked to the behaviour
of football fans, particularly those from the UK.
• Hooligans attached to other sports, such as rugby and
recently, cricket.
FOOTBALL HOOLIGANISM
• behaviour known as “football hooliganism” originated in England in early
1950s.
• Italian fans created a fanatical brand of football support known as Ultra.
Ultras are now a major force in the Italian game and are prevalent in a few
European countries (Dunning et al, 1988).
• Football hooliganism recognized as serious prob by governmnt and media
in 1960s.
• Hooligans, known as “roughs”, caused trouble at matches in professional
game’s early years at the end of the nineteenth century.
• mid-1 960s grps of young men, from local working class housing
estates and suburbs, gathered at games.
• in absence of visiting fans, home staked out the goal-end terraces of
•
•
•
•
football grounds as their “territory”,excluded older spectators and
rival fans .
these “youth ends” and their role in defending local masculine
reputations and territories helped to produce national network of
“gang” rivalries in football.
their own performance in overcoming or intimidating rival “firms”
more important than the performance of the players.
By late 1 980s rival groups sometimes tried to meet outside, before
or , after matches.
By 1992, almost 5000 arrests were being made at all League
Football matches, an average of 2.4 per match.
Who Are Hooligans and Why Do They
Do It?
• Much behaviour described as “hooliganism” actually ritualistic and nonviolent (Marsh et al, 1978).
• involves verbally abusing rival fans, threatening them with attack, and
horseplay aimed at “having a laugh”.
• Core hooligans-more interested in fighting or “running” rival groups who
are, in their eyes, like themselves and are also “looking for trouble”.
• Debates about deeper causes of hooliganism divides researchers and
academics .
• In England ,early work of psychologist Peter Marsh colleagues (1978) at
Oxford focused on non-violent and ritualistic “aggro” at football games
which only led to “real” violence a result of inappropriate police
intervention
• Marsh colleagues believed it was the ritual that hooligan fans had in their
sights.
• Sociologists, had different views:
• Sociologists at Leicester University felt that Marsh and
colleagues understated amount of “real” violence occurring
at matches.
• They argued that in “rough” neighbourhoods young males
are socialised (at home, at work, in peer group gangs etc.) into
standards that value and reward publicly assertive ,openly
aggressive and violent expressions of masculinity.
• Young men expected to be able to “look after themselves”.
• Fights anticipated and enjoyed, because of the challenges
they offer and because of how good they make the
protagonists look.
• Anthony King (2001)emphasised role of
collective memory in shaping hooligan
incidents.
• the future of hooligan gangs and the type of
violence they take part in determined by the
collective “group think” - their common values
and shared memories
Spectator Violence at Sporting Events
• Spectator violence any violent activity that occurs among
those attending a sporting event.
• can be directed at players, officials ,fellow spectators.
• Types of spectator violence include verbal abuse, the
throwing of missiles (such as bottles), property destruction
and physical assaults (Madensen and Eck, 2008).
• Spectator violence not restricted to UK and America although
much of research on the topic comes from these countries.
• increasing incidents of spectator violence in Australia and
South Africa motivated researchers in these countries to look
more closely at this phenomenon.
Reasons for spectator Violence
• In book, Sport in American culture: from All to Xgames, Duncan (2004) :
• “social scientists attribute fan violence to social,
cultural and environmental
factors surrounding the sporting event ’.
• He says (3) factors generally impact on the
occurrence of fan violence:
• the action in the sport event itself,
• Secondly-situational crowd dynamics
• thirdly, the historical, social and political context in
which the contest played (Duncan, 2004).
• Mitrano (2000) cited in Duncan (2004) adds that
these factors include “crowd size and density; crowd
noise levels; standing or seating patterns; crowd
composition - age, gender, race and social class;
amount of alcohol
consumed by crowd; location of event; system of
crowd control used at the event; the history of the
relationship between the teams involved and
their supporters;
• the importance of victory to opposing spectator
supporters and any perceived injustice in officiating”.
• Mass media also contributes to acceptability of sports
violence.
• Bernstein and Blain (2003)-the media plays two (almost
contradictory) roles in coverage of sports violence.
• On the one hand it gives extensive exposure to sports-related
violence via television, magazines, newspapers, and radio.
This exposure then provides numerous examples to children
wanting to imitate such behaviour. It glamorises players.
Media commentary often uses descriptions suggesting sport
is form of combat and violent action is something exciting.
On the other handexposure given to sports violence by media
has also stimulated increased efforts to control and prevent it.
Bernstein and Blain, 2003)
Suggestions for Reducing the
Potential for Violence
• Studies by Madensen and Eck (2008) and Russell (2008)
developed key measures to reduce potential for violence at
an event. These include:
• Promoting Events As “Family Friendly”
Events where promotion aimed at specifically attracting large
numbers of young males lend themselves to become settings
for spectator violence (Russell 2008). Such “high energy”
events often use aggressive “war and enemy” imagery to
promote a great battle between teams. To minimise the risk
of violence marketing events as ‘family friendly” increase
likelihood of attracting calmer, more diverse crowd less likely
to engage in violent or threatening behaviour (Madensen and
Eck, 2008).
•
Professional sports people should be mindful of their conduct as role models for
young fans.
•
Shaking hands at match end, being conscious of their responses to questionable
refereeing decisions are gestures of sportsmanship that are important in
encouraging positive conduct in younger spectators (Russell 2008).
•
Provide Adequate Seating
Ensuring spectators have access to sufficient seating can minimise the risk of
crowding and consequent scuffles between spectators (Russell 2008).
• Reducing Alcohol Availability
Events where full-strength alcohol is easily accessible, and inexpensive, more
likely to experience spectator violence. Providing adequate signage of policies on
liquor consumption and codes of conduct, serving low-strength alcohol and
ensuring policies are enforced can reduce this risk (Madensen and Eck 2008).
• Behavior and Competency of Officials and Players
Police and security staff must ensure patron safety without
over-policing, which can frustrate spectators leading to acts of
aggression (Russell 2008).
• Banning Unruly Spectators
Professional clubs have taken measures to ban spectators
from future matches and from sporting grounds due to violent
behaviours (ABC News 2009). This approach reinforces to the
community that violent behaviour is unacceptable and will
not be tolerated.