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Slide 1 Sociology in Modules chapter two Richard T. Schaefer 1st Edition Sociological Research © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 2 Sociological Research 2 •Module 5: What is the Scientific Method? •Module 6: Major Research Designs •Module 7: Ethics of Research •Module 8: Developments of Methodology © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 3 A Look Ahead █ █ █ How do sociologists go about setting up a research project? How do they ensure that their results are reliable and accurate? Can they avoid violating the rights of those they study? © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 5 Slide 4 What is the Scientific Method? █ Systematic, organized series of steps that ensures maximum objectivity and consistency in researching a problem © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 5 Slide 5 Figure 5-1: The Scientific Method © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 5 Slide 6 Scientific Method █ Defining the Problem – Operational definition: Explanation of an abstract concept that is specific enough to allow researchers to assess the concept █ Reviewing the Literature Refines problem under study © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 5 Slide 7 Scientific Method █ Formulating the Hypothesis – Hypothesis: Speculative statement about the relationship between two or more factors known as variables – Variable: Measurable trait or characteristic subject to change under different conditions • Independent variable: Variable hypothesized to cause or influence another • Dependent variable: Action depends on the influence of the independent variable © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 5 Slide 8 Scientific Method █ Formulating the Hypothesis – Causal logic: Involves relationships between a condition or variable and a particular consequence, with one event leading to the other – Correlation: Exists when change in one variable coincides with change in another Correlation does not necessarily indicate causation © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 5 Slide 9 Figure 5-2: Educational Level and Household Income in the United States © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 5 Slide 10 Figure 5-3: Causal Logic © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 5 Slide 11 Collecting and Analyzing Data █ Selecting the Sample – Sample: Selection from a larger population that is statistically typical of that population – Random sample: When every member of a population has the same chance of being selected – Snowball samples – participants recruited through word of mouth or by posting notices on the Internet © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 5 Slide 12 Collecting and Analyzing Data █ Ensuring Validity and Reliability – Validity: Degree to which the measure reflects the phenomenon being studied – Reliability: Extent to which the measure provides consistent results © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 5 Slide 13 Developing the Conclusion █ Supporting the Hypothesis – Sociological studies do not always generate data that support original hypothesis – Controlling for other factors Control variable: Factor held constant to test the impact of the independent variable © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 5 Slide 14 Figure 5-4: Impact of a College Education on Income © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 6 Slide 15 Major Research Designs █ Research design: Detailed plan or method for obtaining data scientifically – – – – Surveys Observation Experiments Existing sources © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 6 Slide 16 Surveys █ Study that provides sociologists with information about how people act or think – Interview: Researcher obtains information through face-to-face or telephone questioning – Questionnaire: Researcher uses printed or written form to obtain information from respondent © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 6 Slide 17 Surveys █ █ Quantitative research: Collects and reports data primarily in numerical form Qualitative research: Relies on what is seen in field and naturalistic settings; often focuses on small groups and communities © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 6 Slide 18 Research Today █ Surveying Cell Phone Users – Are you a cell phone-only user? If so, do you generally accept calls from unknown numbers? – Which of the problems that arise during telephone surveys might also arise during Internet surveys? Might Internet surveys involve some unique problems? © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 6 Slide 19 Observation █ Collecting information through direct participation and/or by closely watching a group or community – Observation: Sociologist joins group to get accurate sense of how it operates – Ethnography: Efforts to describe an entire social setting through extended systematic observation © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 6 Slide 20 Experiments █ Artificially created situation that allows researcher to manipulate variables – Experimental group: Exposed to independent variable – Control group: Not exposed to independent variable – Hawthorne Effect: Unintended influence of observers or experiments on subjects © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 6 Slide 21 Use of Existing Sources █ Secondary analysis: Research techniques that make use of previously collected and publicly accessible information and data Content analysis: Systematic coding and objective recording of data, guided by some rationale © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 6 Slide 22 Research Today █ What’s In a Name? – According to www.babynamewizard.com, how popular is your first name? Is it becoming more or less fashionable over time? – Using the Name Mapper feature at www.babynamewizard.com, find out how popular your name is in the state where you were born. © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 7 Slide 23 Ethics of Research █ Code of Ethics (ASA, 1997) 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Maintain objectivity and integrity in research Respect subjects’ right to privacy and dignity Protect subjects from personal harm Preserve confidentiality Seek informed consent Acknowledge collaboration and assistance Disclose sources of financial support © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 7 Slide 24 Ethics of Research █ Confidentiality Conflict of Interest █ Value Neutrality █ – Investigators have ethical obligation to accept research findings even when the data run counter to their personal views, to theoretically based explanations, or to widely accepted beliefs © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 8 Slide 25 Feminist Methodology █ Feminist perspective had greatest impact on current generation of researchers – See work and family as closely integrated – Noted that studies tend to overlook women – Questioned commonly accepted methodological techniques – Tend to involve and consult subjects more than other researchers – More oriented toward seeking change, raising public consciousness, and influencing policy © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 8 Slide 26 Technology and Sociological Research █ Extends range and capability to conduct research Allows researchers to store and analyze large amounts of information █ Web-based surveys in early stages, but have basic limitation █ © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 8 Slide 27 Studying Human Sexuality █ Understanding the Issue – Kaiser Family Foundation found more than two-thirds of TV shows include some sexual content – How does one carry out scientific research on such a controversial and personal topic? © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 8 Slide 28 Studying Human Sexuality █ Applying Sociology – Little reliable national data on patterns of sexual behavior in U.S. – Government funding for studies of sexual behavior is controversial © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 8 Slide 29 Studying Human Sexuality █ Applying Sociology – Federal government is major source of funding for sociological research – ASA’s Code of Ethics does not address whether sociologists who accept funding from a particular agency or corporation may also accept the agency’s perspective on what needs to be studied © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 8 Slide 30 Studying Human Sexuality █ Initiating Policy – In 1991, U.S. Senate forbid funding any survey on adult sexual practices – Laumann, Gagnon, Michaels, and Michael developed NHSLS to better understand sexual practices of adults in U.S. – Used $1.6 million of private funding to fund research © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 8 Slide 31 Figure 8-1: Percentage of Television Shows that Contain Sexual Content © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Module 8 Slide 32 Figure 8-2: Median Age of First Sex © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Appendix I Slide 33 Using Statistics █ Percentage: Shows portion of 100 Mean: Average; sum of a series of values divided by the number of values █ Mode: Single most common value in a series of values █ Median: Midpoint that divides a series of values into two groups with equal numbers of values █ © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Appendix I Slide 34 Reading Graphs █ Tables allow social scientists to display data and make it easier to develop conclusions – Cross-tabulation: Shows relationship between two or more variables Graphs are often easier for the general public to understand © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Appendix I Slide 35 Figure A-3: Changing Attitudes Toward the Legalization of Marijuana © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Appendix I Slide 36 Figure A-4: People Who Favor Legalization of Marijuana by Gender and Age, 2009 © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Appendix II Slide 37 Writing a Research Report █ Finding Information – – – – – – – Check textbooks Use library catalog Use computerized periodical indexes Examine government documents Use newspapers Ask people, organizations, and agencies Consult instructor © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Appendix II Slide 38 Writing a Research Report █ Writing the Report – – – – █ Focus on topic Develop an outline Work ahead of deadline Read paper aloud Including Citations and References © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.