Download Final Exam Review - Fredericksburg City Public Schools

Sociology
Exam Review
What Is Sociology?
“...The systematic study of human society ”
– Systematic
• Scientific discipline that focuses attention on patterns of behavior
– Human society
• Group behavior is primary focus; how groups influence individuals
and vice versa
– At the “heart of sociology”
• The sociological perspective which offers a unique view of society
The Sociological Perspective
Peter Berger
• Seeing the general in the particular
– Sociologists identify general social patterns in the
behavior of particular individuals.
• Seeing the strange in the familiar
– Giving up the idea that human behavior is simply a
matter of what people decide to do
– Understanding that society shapes our lives
Sociological Perspective and
Sociological Imagination
C. Wright Mills
C. Wright Mills’
Sociological Imagination
• The power of the sociological perspective lies
not just in changing individual lives but in
transforming society.
• Society, not people’s personal failings, is the
cause of social problems.
• The sociological imagination transforms
personal troubles into public issues.
Sociological Theory
• Theory: a statement of how and why facts
are related
– Explains social behavior to the real world
• Theoretical paradigm: A set of fundamental
assumptions that guides thinking
– Structural-functional
– Social-conflict
– Symbolic-interaction
Structural-Functional Theory
A theoretical framework in
which society is viewed as a
whole unit, composed of
interrelated parts, each with
a function that, when
fulfilled, contributes to
society’s equilibrium
Also known as functionalism
and structural functionalism
Functional Analysis
• Focuses on Social Structure and
Social Function
• Structure- stable pattern of behavior
• Function: consequences of patterns
for operation of society
• Argues that Social Order is based on
Social Consensus
Social Functions
• Manifest Functions- Intended
• Latent Functions- Unintended
• Dysfunctions- Problematic
Critical Evaluations of
Functional Analysis
• Tends to be
conservative
• Tends to dismiss
change-”systems”
• Overlooks the
negative
Structural-Functional Paradigm
• The basics
– A macro-level orientation, concerned with broad patterns
that shape society as a whole
– Views society as a complex system whose parts work
together to promote solidarity and stability
• Key elements:
– Social structure refers to any relatively stable patterns of
social behavior found in social institutions.
– Social function refers to the consequences for the operation
of society as a whole.
Conflict Theory
A theoretical framework in
which society is viewed as
being composed of groups
competing for scarce
resources.
Conflict Theory
• Focuses on Social Tension and Social
Change
• Is macro level orientation
• Argues that Social Order is maintained
by direct or indirect exercise of power
• “Marginality”-those on the fringe of
society
• Originated from the work of Karl Marx
Social-Conflict Paradigm
• The basics:
– A macro-oriented paradigm
– Views society as an arena of inequality that generates
conflict and social change
• Key elements:
– Society is structured in ways to benefit a few at the
expense of the majority.
– Factors such as race, sex, class, and age are linked to
social inequality.
– Dominant group vs. disadvantaged group relations
Symbolic-Interaction Theory
A theoretical perspective
that focuses on how
people use symbols to
establish meaning,
develop their views of
the world, and
communicate with one
another.
Interactionism
• Focuses on details of everyday life and
interaction between people, and on how
meaning is assigned to human interaction
• Is micro level orientation
• Argues that society responds through
symbolic interaction
• Originated from the studies of Max Weber
and George Herbert Mead
Who’s Who in the
Symbolic-Interaction Paradigm
• Max Weber
– Understanding a setting from the people in it
• George Herbert Mead
– How we build personalities from social
experience
• Erving Goffman
– Dramaturgical analysis
• George Homans & Peter Blau
– Social-exchange analysis
Critical Evaluation
• Structural-Functional
– Too broad, ignores inequalities of social class, race
& gender, focuses on stability at the expense of
conflict
• Social-Conflict
– Too broad, ignores how shared values and mutual
interdependence unify society, pursues political
goals
• Symbolic-Interaction
– Ignores larger social structures, effects of culture,
factors such as class, gender & race
Sociological Investigation
A logical system that derives knowledge
From direct, systematic observation
Three Frameworks
for Sociological Investigation
• Scientific sociology
– The study of society based on systematic
observation of social behavior
– Empirical evidence–Information we can verify with
our senses
• Interpretive sociology
– The study of society that focuses on the meanings
people attach to their social world
• Critical sociology
– The study of society that focuses on the need for
change
Causation
• Cause and effect
– A relationship in which change in one variable causes
change in another (Hard to establish)
• Correlation
– A relationship by which two or more variables change
together (direct/inverse- positive/negative)
• Spurious correlation
– An apparent, though false, relationship between two or
more variables caused by some other variable
• Types of variables
– Independent: The variable that causes the change
– Dependent: The variable that changes (its value
depends upon the independent variable)
Variables
• Dependent Variable- The variable that
changes due to the
• Independent Variable- the variable that
causes the change
• Dependent: Grade on the Exam
• Independent(s): The amount of time
studying, reading level, energy level,
grades on previous tests, etc.
Spurious Correlations
Shoe Size & Math Skill
Scientific Sociology
Terminology
• Concepts–A mental construct that represents
some part of the world in a simplified form
• Variables–Concepts whose values change from
case to case
• Measurement–A procedure for determining the
value of a variable in a specific case
• Operationalizing a variable–Specifying exactly
what is to be measured before assigning a value
to a variable
Scientific Sociology Terminology
• Reliability–Consistency in measurement
– Does an instrument provide for a consistent
measure of the subject matter?
• Validity–Precision in measuring exactly
what one intends to measure
– Does an instrument actually measure what it sets
out to measure?
If measurement is not Reliable,
then it can’t be Valid- but needs
to be both to be of any value
Scientific Sociology Terminology
• Objectivity
– A state of personal neutrality in conducting research
• Value-free research
– Weber said sociologists should strive to be
dispassionate and detached.
• Replication
– Repetition of research by other investigators
– Helps limit distortion caused by personal values
Limitations
of Scientific Sociology
• Human behavior is too complex to predict
precisely any individual’s actions.
• The mere presence of the researcher might
affect the behavior being studied.
• Social patterns change.
• Sociologists are part of the world they study,
making value-free research difficult.
Miligram's Experiment
• The Original Miligram Experiment (1961) •
VideoSift: Online Video *Quality Control
• Administered electric shocks to “Subjects”
Sociological Research Methods
A Systematic Plan for Conducting Research
• Experiment–A research method for investigating
cause and effect under highly controlled conditions
• Hypothesis–An unverified statement of a relationship
between variables (an educated guess)
• Placebo–A treatment that seems to be the same but
has no effect on the experiment
• “Hawthorne effect”– A change in a subject's
behavior caused by the awareness of being studied
Control
• To be certain that the change in the dependent
variable was due to the exposure to the
independent variable, the researcher must keep
constant other factors that might intrude.
• One method is to break group into experimental
and control groups.
– Experimental group is exposed to independent
variable.
– Control group is exposed to a placebo.
Survey Research
A research method in which subjects respond to a series
of statements or questions in a questionnaire or interview
• Population
– The people who are the focus of the research
• Sample
– The part of the population that represents the
whole
• Random Sample
– Drawing a sample from a population so that every
element of the population has an equal chance of
being selected
Culture
The values, beliefs, behavior, and material objects
that together form a people’s
way of life
Terminology
• Nonmaterial culture
– The intangible world of ideas created by
members of a society
• Material culture
– The tangible things created by members
of a society
Terminology
• Culture shock
– Disorientation due to the inability to
make sense out of one’s surroundings
• Domestic and foreign travel
• Ethnocentrism
– A biased “cultural yardstick”-Evaluate
based on your own Culture’s standards
• Cultural relativism
– More accurate understanding-cultural
perspective-context of the culture
Symbols
• Anything that carries a particular
meaning recognized by people who
share a culture
• Societies create new symbols all the
time.
• Reality for humans is found in the
meaning things carry with them.
– The basis of culture; makes social
life possible
Symbols
• People must be mindful that
meanings vary from culture to
culture.
• Meanings can even vary greatly
within the same groups of people.
– Fur coats, Confederate flags, etc.
Values and Beliefs
• Values
– Culturally defined standards of
desirability, goodness, and beauty,
which serve as broad guidelines for
social living. Values support beliefs.
• Beliefs
– Specific statements that people hold to
be true.
– Particular matters that individuals
consider to be true or false.
Norms
Rules and expectations by which society
guides its members’ behavior
• Types
– Proscriptive
• Should-nots, prohibited
– Prescriptive
• Shoulds, prescribed like medicine
• Mores and Folkways
– Mores (pronounced "more-rays")
• Widely observed and have great moral
significance
– Folkways
• Norms for routine and casual interaction
Social Control
Various means by which members of society
encourage conformity to norms
• Guilt
– A negative judgment we make about
ourselves
• Shame
– The painful sense that others
disapprove of our actions
Cultural Diversity
• Subculture–Cultural patterns that set apart
some segment of society’s population.
• Counterculture–Cultural patterns that strongly
oppose those widely accepted within a society.
Terms
• Culture integration
–
The close relationships among various elements of a
cultural system
• Example: Computers and changes in our language
• Culture lag
–
The fact that some cultural elements change more
quickly than others, which might disrupt a cultural system
• Example: Medical procedures and ethics
• Cultural universals– Traits that are part of
every known culture; includes family, funeral rites,
and jokes
Socialization
The lifelong social experience by which
people develop their human potential and
learn culture
Social Experience
Socialization
• The lifelong social experience by which
individuals develop their human potential and
learn patterns of their culture
Personality
• A person’s fairly consistent patterns of thinking,
feeling, and acting
– Could a person’s personality develop without social
interaction?
Nature and Nurture
•
Biological sciences–The role of nature
– Elements of society have a naturalistic root.
•
Social sciences–The role of nurture
– Most of who and what we are as a species is
learned, or social in nature.
– Behaviorism
•
Nature or nurture?
– It is both, but from a sociological perspective,
nurture matters more.
Social Isolation
Effect on nonhuman primates: Harlows’ experiments
• Six months of complete isolation was enough to disturb
development.
Effect on children: Anna and Isabelle
• Years of isolation left both children damaged and only
capable of approximating a normal life after intensive
rehabilitation.
Genie
• Somewhat less isolated, but suffered permanent
disabilities
Theories
•
•
•
•
Freud- Id, Ego, Superego
Piaget- cognitive development
Kohlberg- Moral Reasoning
Mead/ Cooley- “Self”/ “Looking glass self”
Erik Erickson
This theory views personality as a lifelong
process (8 Stages) and success at one
stage prepares us for the next challenge.
• Critics: Not everyone confronts the
challenges in the same order.
• Not clear if failure to meet one
challenge predicts failure in other
stages
• Do other cultures share Erickson’s
definition of successful life?
Agents of Socialization
•
•
•
•
•
•
The Family
The School
The Peer Group
The Mass Media
Church
Government
The Family
• Most important agent
– A loving family produces a happy welladjusted child.
• Parental attention is very important
– Bonding and encouragement
• Household environment
– Stimulates development
• Social position
– Race, religion, ethnicity, class
Socialization and Life Course
• Each stage of life is linked to the biological
process.
• Societies organize the life course by age.
• Other factors shape lives: race, class,
ethnicity, and gender.
• Stages present problems and transitions
that involve learning.
Social Interaction
In Everyday Life
The process by which people act and
react in relation to others
Social Interaction
• The symbolic interaction paradigm
– What are the other two major theories?
– Do either have implications here?
• Humans rely on social structure to make
sense out of everyday situations.
Status
• A social position that a person
holds
• Status set
– All the statuses held at one time
•
•
•
•
•
•
Dance partner
Boss
Friend
Harley club member
Sports participant
Business manager
Type of Status
• Ascribed: Involuntary positions
• Achieved: Voluntary positions
Often the two types work together. What we’re
ascribed often helps us achieve other
statuses.
• Master status: Has special
importance for social identity, often
shaping a person’s entire life.
Role
The behavior expected of someone who holds a
particular status
• Role set
– A number of roles attached to a single status
– Example: status of mother
•
•
•
•
•
Disciplinarian
Sports authority
Dietitian
Dr. Mom
Pretty mom
Role Conflict and Role Strain
• Role conflict
– Involves two or more statuses
• Example: Conflict between role expectations of a
police officer who catches her own son using drugs
at home–mother and police officer
• Role strain
– Involves a single status
• Example: Manager who tries to balance concern
for workers with task requirements–office manager
Role Exit
• Role exit: Becoming an “ex”
– Disengaging from social roles can be very traumatic
without proper preparation.
• The process of becoming an “ex”
– Doubts form about ability to continue with a certain
role.
– Examination of new roles leads to a turning point at
which time one decides to pursue a new direction.
– Learning new expectations associated with new role.
– Past role might influence new self.
The Social Construction
of Reality
• The process by which people creatively shape
reality through social interaction.
• “Street smarts”
• The Thomas theorem
– Situations that are defined as real are real in their
consequences
• Ethnomethodology
– The study of the way people make sense of their
everyday surroundings
– Explores the process of making sense of social
encounters
Goffman’s Dramaturgical
Analysis
Examining social interaction in terms of theatrical
performances
• Presentation of self or impression management
– Efforts to create specific impressions in the minds of
others.
• Role performance includes
– Stage setting
– Use of props: costume, tone of voice, gesture
– Example: Going to the doctor and playing the
expected patient role.
Groups and Organizations
Primary Groups
Small social groups whose members share personal,
lasting relationships.
• Traits
– Small
– Personal orientation
– Enduring
• Primary relationships
– First group experienced in
life
– Irreplaceable
• Assistance of all kinds
– Emotional to financial
Secondary Groups
A large, impersonal social group whose
members pursue a specific goal or activity.
• Traits
– Large membership
– Goal or activity orientation
– Formal and polite
• Secondary relationships
– Weak emotional ties
– Short term
• Examples
– Co-workers and political
organizations
Figure 7.1
Cards Used in Asch’s Experiment in Group Conformity
In Asch’s experiment, subjects were asked to match the line on Card 1 to one of the lines on Card 2. Many subjects agreed with the wrong answers given by
others in their group.
Source: Asch (1952).
Social Conformity
• Kitty Genovese/What would you do?
• “Bystander Effect”/ Diffusion of
Responsibility”
– The larger the # of People in a group the less
likely someone will respond (until someone
else does)
– The less clear the situation the less likely
someone will intervene
Sexuality and Society
Sex: A Biological Issue
• The biological distinctions between females
and males
• Primary sex characteristics
– Organs used for reproduction
• Secondary sex characteristics
– Bodily development that distinguishes mature
males and females
Sexual Orientation- rooted in Biology, social
experience plays some role
Theoretical Analysis
• Structural-functional analysis
– Need to regulate sexual behavior
– Latent function
• Symbolic-interaction analysis
– The social construction of sexuality
– Sexual practices vary from culture to culture.
• Social-conflict analysis
– Highlights dimensions of inequality
– Shows how sexuality reflects patterns of social inequality
and helps perpetuate them.
– Queer theory–Research findings that challenge the
heterosexual bias in US society.
Controversies-Sexuality
• Teen pregnancy
– Highest rates of other high-income countries
– Sex education in schools: solution or
problem?
– Highest for teenage women with low
incomes and weak families
Abortion– Remains the most controversial issue
involving sexuality
Deviance
The recognized violation of cultural norms
Deviance
The recognized violation of cultural norms
• Norms guide almost all human activities
– Most familiar examples are negative instances of rulebreaking.
– Especially righteous people also might be called “deviant.”
– “Different” or “unexpected” are often used to describe
deviance from a sociological perspective.
• Crime (laws)
– Violation of a society’s formal criminal law
– Criminal deviance spans a wide range of behaviors
Social Control
The attempts a society makes at regulating thought and
behavior
• Criminal justice system
– A formal response by police, courts, and prison
officials to alleged violations of the law.
• Biological context
– Biological factors might have a real but modest
effect on whether a person becomes a criminal.
• Personality factors
– Deviance is viewed as unsuccessful
“socialization.”
Social Foundations of
Deviance
• Deviance varies according to cultural norms.
– No thought or action is inherently deviant.
• People become deviant as others define
them that way.
– How others perceive and label us
• Both norms and the way people define rulebreaking involve social power.
– Rule-makers, rule-breakers, and rule-enforcers
– Norms and applying them are linked to social
position.
Labeling Deviance
• Symbolic-interaction analysis
– The assertion that deviance and conformity result not so
much from what people do as from how others respond to
those actions.
• Primary deviance
– Norm violations that most people take part in with little harm
to self-concept
• Secondary deviance
– When people “make something” of another’s deviant behavior
• Stigma
– Powerful negative label that greatly changes a person’s selfconcept and social identity
Durkheim's Basic Insight
• Deviance affirms cultural values and norms.
– There can be no good without evil and no justice without
crime.
• Responding to deviance clarifies moral boundaries.
– People draw a boundary between right and wrong.
• Responding to deviance brings people together.
– People typically react to serious deviance with shared
outrage.
• Deviance encourages social change.
– Deviant people push a society’s moral boundaries.
Sutherland’s Differential
Association
– Deviant behavior is learned.
– Frequency of association is central to the
development of deviance.
– If associates are prone to violation of
norms, then one is also more likely to take
part.
– Conformity reaps rewards while the lack of
it reaps punishment.
Deviance and Capitalism
Steven Spitzer’s likely targets of labeling
•
•
•
•
•
People who interfere with capitalism.
People who cannot or will not work.
People who resist authority.
Anyone who directly challenges the status quo
White-collar crime
– Those committed by people of high social position in the course of
their occupations
• Corporate crime
– Illegal actions of a corporation or people acting on its behalf
• Organized crime
– A business supplying illegal goods or services
Deviance, Race, and Gender
• Hate crime
– A criminal act against a person or person’s property by
an offender motivated by racial or other bias
• Gender
– The world applies more stringent normative controls to
women.
– Strain due to reality of gender-based inequality
– Judge the behavior of women and men differently
– Why do women commit fewer crimes than men?
Crime
• The violation of criminal laws enacted by a
locality, state, or the federal government
• Two elements
– The act itself
– Criminal intent
• Crimes against the person
– Direct violence or threat of it
• Crimes against property
– Involves theft of property
• Criminal statistics
– Victimization surveys: Crime rate is two to
four times higher than official reports
The Street Criminal: A Profile
• Ages 15-24
– 14% of population
– 39.7% of arrests for violent crime, 45% of property crimes
• Gender
– Males commit 67.4% of property crimes and 82% of violent
crimes
• Social class
– Violent crimes committed by a few in poor neighborhoods
– White-collar and corporate crime committed by more
affluent
• Race and ethnicity
– 69.8% of arrests involve white people
– People of color are over-criminalized
US Criminal Justice System
Due Process
•
•
•
The criminal justice system must operate according to
law.
This principle is grounded in the Bill of Rights.
Anyone charged with a crime must receive:
1. Fair notice of the proceedings
2. A hearing on the charges conducted according to law
and with the ability to present a defense,
3. A judge or jury that weighs evidence impartially
Justifications for Punishment
•
•
•
•
Retribution-revenge
Deterrence-prevention
Rehabilitation-make better
Societal protection-Removal
– Recidivism- Later offenses by people previously convicted of
crimes- High % chance of returning to prison- About a 6070% chance charged with another crime within 3 years.
Social Stratification
A system by which a society ranks categories
of people in a hierarchy
Basic Principles
• A trait of society
– Doesn’t reflect individual differences, but society’s
structure
• Persists over generations
– Social mobility happens slowly.
• Universal but variable
– While universal, it varies in type.
• Involves not just inequality, but beliefs
– Ideologies justify existence of social stratification.
The Caste System
Social stratification based on ascription, or birth
• Birth determines social position in four ways:
– Occupation
– Marriage within caste
– Social life is restricted to “own kind.”
– Belief systems are often tied to religious
dogma.
• Many of the world’s societies are caste systems.
• Caste system is illegal, but elements survive.
Class Systems
Social stratification based on both birth and
individual achievement
• Social mobility for people with education and
skills
• All people gain equal standing before the law.
• Work involves some personal choice.
• Meritocracy: Based on personal merit
Class Systems
• Status consistency– The degree of uniformity
in a person's social standing across various
dimensions of social inequality.
• A caste system has limited social mobility and
high status consistency.
• The greater mobility of class systems
produces less status consistency.
The Davis-Moore Thesis
Social stratification has beneficial consequences
for the operation of a society
• The greater the importance of a position, the
more rewards a society attaches to it.
• Egalitarian societies offer little incentive for
people to try their best.
• Positions a society considers more important
must reward enough to draw talented people
Karl Marx:
Class and Conflict
• Most people have one of two relationships with the
means of production.
– Bourgeoisie own productive property.
– The proletariat works for the bourgeoisie.
• Capitalism creates great inequality in power and
wealth.
• This oppression would drive the working majority to
organize and overthrow capitalism.
Stratification and Interaction
• Differences in social class position can affect
interaction.
• People interact primarily with others of similar
social standing.
• Conspicuous consumption refers to buying
and using products because of the
"statement" they make about social position.
Bell Curve-IQ
Social Class
in the United States
A Middle-Class Society
• Everyone stands equal under the law.
• We celebrate individuality.
• We interact mostly with people like
ourselves.
• The US is an affluent society.
• Socioeconomic status (SES) reflects
money (income, wealth & power),
occupational prestige and schooling.
Dimensions of Class
• Income
– Earning from work or investments
• Wealth
– The total value of money and other assets,
minus any debt
• Power
– The ability to control, even in the face of
resistance
• Occupational prestige
– Job-related status
• Schooling
– Key to better career opportunities
US Stratification:
Merit and Caste
• Ancestry
– Born to privilege or poverty makes a big difference
• Race and ethnicity
– Disparity still exists when comparing majority and minority
groups on social and financial variables.
– People of English ancestry have always enjoyed the most
wealth and the greatest power in US society.
• Gender
– More poor families are headed by women.
– On average, women have less income, wealth, and
occupational prestige than men.
Social Classes
• The upper class
– 5% of the population
– Earn at least $185,000 a year
• The middle class
– 40-45% of the population
– Large middle class has tremendous cultural influence.
• The working class
– 33% of the population
– Blue-collar jobs yield between $25,000 and $45,000 a year.
• The lower class
– The remaining 20% of the population
– Working poor hold low-prestige jobs that provide little income.
The Difference Class Makes
• Health
– Amount and type of health care
• Values and attitudes
– Vary with position
• Politics
– Conservative or liberal
• Family and gender
– Type of parental involvement
– Socialization practices
– Relationships and responsibilities
Social Mobility
• Upward
– College degree or higher-paying job
• Downward
– Drop out of school, losing a job or divorce
• Structural social mobility
– Changes in society or national economic trends
• Intragenerational mobility
– Change in social position during a person’s lifetime
• Intergenerational mobility
– Upward or downward movement that takes place across
generations within a family
The American Dream
• Earnings have stalled for many workers
– From 1974-2004, worker income rose slightly,
even as the number of work hours increased
and cost of necessities went way up.
• More jobs offer little income
– Many industrial jobs have gone overseas,
reducing the number of high-paying US jobs.
• Young people are remaining at (and
returning) home (Boomerang Kids)
– For the first time ever, half of Americans age 18
to 24 are living with their parents.
Extent of Poverty
• Relative poverty–The deprivation of some
people in relation to those who have more
• Absolute poverty–A deprivation of
resources that is life-threatening
• Poverty line
– About three times what the government
estimates people must spend for food.
– The income of the average poor family is 60%
of this amount.
• Extent of US poverty
– 12.6% (37 million) are impoverished.
Demographics of Poverty
• Age
– In 2005, 35% of US poor were children.
• Race and ethnicity
– Two-thirds of all poor are white.
– In 2005, 25% of all African Americans and 21% of Hispanics
were poor.
• Gender
– 61% of poor are women.
– Women who head households are at high risk of poverty.
Explaining Poverty
• Blame the poor
– The poor are mostly responsible for their own poverty.
– Culture of poverty produces a self-perpetuating cycle of
poverty
– Time limits for welfare
• Blame society
– Little opportunity for work
– William Julius Wilson: Little opportunity for work; not enough
jobs to support families
Gender Stratification
Gender and Inequality
• Gender–Personal traits and social positions that
members of a society attach to being female and
male
• Gender stratification–Unequal distribution of
wealth, power, and privilege between men and
women
• Male-female biological differences
Patriarchy
A form of social organization in which males dominate
females
• Matriarchy–A form of social organization in
which females dominate males
• Sexism–Belief that one sex or the other is
innately inferior or superior
• Institutional sexism
–Found throughout the economy
• The costs of sexism
–Sexism limits half of the human population.
• Inevitability of patriarchy
–Most sociologists believe gender is socially
constructed and can be changed.
Social Stratification
• 59% of all women work.
• Women hold primary responsibility for
household duties.
• Our culture gives more responsibility for
parenting to women.
• On average, women earn 77 cents for every
dollar earned by men.
• Some work defined as “men’s work”
Race and Ethnicity
Chapter 14
Definitions
• Race–A socially constructed category
composed of people who share biologically
transmitted traits that members of a society
consider important
• Sociologists consider racial terms misleading
at best and harmful at worst.
– No society contains biologically “pure” people.
– There are only three major classifications:
Caucasoid, Mongoloid and Negroid
Definitions
• Ethnicity–a shared cultural heritage
– The United States is a multiethnic society
– Like race, ethnicity is socially constructed
• Remember: Race is constructed from
biological traits and ethnicity is constructed
from cultural traits.
• For most people, ethnicity is more complex
than race and more significant in terms of
social identity.
Minority
Any category of people distinguished by physical or
cultural difference that a society sets apart and
subordinates
• General characteristics
– Distinct identity: Race, sex, sexual orientation,
the poor
– Subordination: Often saddled with lower status
• Stereotypes, stigma, and labeling
• Group size not always a factor
– Women in US outnumber men.
– Blacks in South Africa outnumber whites.
Prejudice
• Prejudice–A rigid and unfair generalization
about an entire category of people.
• Stereotype–An exaggerated description
applied to every person in some category
Measuring Prejudice
The Social Distance Scale
1.
2.
3.
Student opinion shows a trend toward greater social
acceptance.
People see fewer differences among various
minorities.
The terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, might
have reduced social acceptance of Arabs and
Muslims.
Racism
The belief that one racial category is
innately superior or inferior to another
• Racism has been widespread throughout
US history where ideas about racial
inferiority supported slavery.
• Overt racism in the US has decreased,
but remains a serious social problem.
Theories of Prejudice
• Scapegoat theory
– Disadvantaged people who unfairly blame
minorities for their own problems
• Authoritarian personality theory
– Rigid moralists who see things in “black & white”
• Culture theory
– Everyone has some prejudice because it’s
embedded in culture.
Theories of Prejudice
• Conflict theory
– Self-justification for the rich and powerful in the
United States
– Minorities might cultivate climate of race
consciousness in order to win greater power and
privileges.
Discrimination
Unequal treatment of various categories of people
•
Institutional prejudice and discrimination– Bias
built into the operation of society’s institutions
•
Carmichael and Hamilton: People are slow to
condemn or even recognize institutional
prejudice and discrimination because it often
involves respected public officials and longestablished practices.
The Vicious Circle
1. Prejudice and discrimination begin as
ethnocentric attitudes.
2. As a result, groups can be placed in a
situation where they’re socially disadvantaged
and labeled.
3. A group’s situation, over time, is thus
explained as a result of innate inferiority rather
than looking at the social structure. The cycle
then repeats itself.
Figure 14.2
Prejudice and Discrimination: The Vicious Circle
Prejudice and discrimination can form a vicious circle, perpetuating themselves.
Patterns of Interaction
• Pluralism–A state in which people of all races
and ethnicities are distinct but have equal
social standing
• Assimilation–The process by which minorities
gradually adopt patterns of the dominant
culture
• Miscegenation–Biological reproduction by
partners of different racial categories
Patterns of Interaction
• Segregation–The physical and social
separation of categories of people
– De facto- just happens
– De Jure- by law or policy
• Genocide–The systematic killing of one
category of people by another
The END!!!