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PROBABILITY AND STATISTICS
FOR ENGINEERING
Probability Theory
Hossein Sameti
Department of Computer Engineering
Sharif University of Technology
Probability And Statistics
Source: http://ocw.mit.edu
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PROBABILITY THEORY
1.Basics
Random Phenomena, Experiments
 Study of random phenomena
 Different outcomes
 Outcomes that have certain underlying patterns about them
 Experiment
- repeatable conditions
 Certain elementary events Ei occur in different but completely
uncertain ways.
 probability of the event Ei : P(Ei )>=0
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Probability Definitions
 Laplace’s Classical Definition
- without actual experimentation
- provided all these outcomes are equally likely.
Example
• a box with n white and m red balls
elementary outcomes: {white , red}
Probability of “selecting a white ball”:
• P a given number is divisible by a prime p 
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1
p
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Probability Definitions
 Relative Frequency Definition
- The probability of an event A is defined as
- nA is the number of occurrences of A
- n is the total number of trials
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Probability Definitions
Example
1. The probability that a given number is divisible by a prime p:
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Counting - Remark
 General Product Rule
if an operation consists of k steps each of which can be performed in ni ways
(i = 1, 2, …, k), then the entire operation can be performed in ni ways.
Example
- Number of PINs
- Number of elements in a Cartesian product
- Number of PINs without repetition
- Number of Input/Output tables for a circuit with n input signals
- Number of iterations in nested loops
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Permutations and Combinations - Remark
 If order matters choose k from n:
- Permutations :
 If order doesn't matter choose k from n:
- Combinations :
Example
A fair coin is tossed 7 times. What is the
probability of obtaining 3 heads? What is
the probability of obtaining at most 3
heads?
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Example: The Birthday Problem
 Suppose you have a class of 23 students. Would you think it likely or
unlikely that at least two students will have the same birthday?
 It turns out that the probability of at least two of 23 people having the
same birthday is about 0.5 (50%).
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Axioms of Probability- Basics
 The axiomatic approach to probability, due to Kolmogorov,
developed through a set of axioms
 The totality of all events known a priori, constitutes a set Ω, the set
of all experimental outcomes.
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Axioms of Probability- Basics
 A and B are subsets of Ω .
A
A
B
A B
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B
A
A B
A
A
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Mutually Exclusiveness and Partitions
A  B  ,
 A and B are said to be mutually exclusive if
 A partition of  is a collection of mutually exclusive(ME) subsets of
 such that their union is .
A1
A
B
Aj
A2
Ai
An
A B  
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De-Morgan’s Laws
A B  A B ;
A
B
A B
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A
B
A B
A B  A B
A
B
A
B
A B
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Events
 Often it is meaningful to talk about at least some of the subsets of 
as events
 we must have mechanism to compute their probabilities.
Example
Tossing two coins simultaneously:
A: The event of “Head has occurred at least once” .
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Events and Set Operators
 “Does an outcome belong to A or B”
 “Does an outcome belong to A and B”
 “Does an outcome fall outside A”?
 These sets also qualify as events.
 We shall formalize this using the notion of a Field.
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Fields
 A collection of subsets of a nonempty set  forms a field F if
(i)
F
(ii)
If A  F , then A  F
(iii) If A  F and B  F , then A  B  F .
 Using (i) - (iii), it is easy to show that the following also belong to F.
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Fields
If
then
 We shall reserve the term event only to members of F.
 Assuming that the probability P(Ei ) of elementary outcomes Ei of Ω are
apriori defined.
 The three axioms of probability defined below can be used to assign
probabilities to more ‘complicated’ events.
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Axioms of Probability
 For any event A, we assign a number P(A), called the probability of
the event A.
 Conclusions:
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Probability of Union of to Non-ME Sets
A
AB
A B
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Union of Events
 Is Union of denumerably infinite collection of
pairwise disjoint events Ai an event?
 If so, what is P(A ) ?
 We cannot use third probability axiom to
compute P(A), since it only deals with two
(or a finite number) of M.E. events.
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An Example for Intuitive Understanding
 in an experiment, where the same coin is tossed indefinitely define:
A = “head eventually appears”.
 Our intuitive experience surely tells us that A is an event.
If
An  head appears for the 1st time on the nth toss
 {t
,
t, 
t ,
, t , h}


n 1
We have:
 Extension of previous notions must be done based on our intuition as
new axioms.
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σ-Field (Definition):
 A field F is a σ-field if in addition to the
three mentioned conditions, we have the
following:
- For every sequence of pairwise disjoint
events belonging to F, their union also
belongs to F
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Extending the Axioms of Probability
 If Ai s are pairwise mutually exclusive
 from experience we know that if we keep
tossing a coin, eventually, a head must
show up:
 But:
P ( A)  1.
A

A
,
 P( A
).
n
n 1
 Using the fourth probability axiom we
have:



P( A)  P
  An 

 n 1

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
n 1
n
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Reasonablity
 In previously mentioned coin tossing experiment:
 So the fourth axiom seems reasonable.
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Summary: Probability Models
 The triplet (, F, P)
-  is a nonempty set of elementary events
-F
is a -field of subsets of .
- P is a probability measure on the sets in F subject to the four
axioms
 The probability of more complicated events must follow this
framework by deduction.
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Conditional Probability
 In N independent trials, suppose NA, NB, NAB denote the number of times
events A, B and AB occur respectively.
 According to the frequency interpretation of probability, for large N,
P( A) 
NA
N
N
, P( B )  B , P( AB)  AB .
N
N
N
 Among the NA occurrences of A, only NAB of them are also found among the
NB occurrences of B.
 Thus the following is a measure of “the event A given that B has already
occurred”:
N AB N AB / N P( AB)


NB
NB / N
P( B )
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Satisfying Probability Axioms
 We represent this measure by P(A|B) and define:
P( AB)
P( A | B ) 
,
P( B )
P( B )  0.
 As we will show, the above definition is a valid one as it satisfies all
probability axioms discussed earlier.
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Satisfying Probability Axioms
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Properties of Conditional Probability
Example
In a dice tossing experiment,
-
A : outcome is even
-
B: outcome is 2.
The statement that B has occurred
makes the odds for A greater
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Law of Total Probability
 We can use the conditional probability to express the probability of a
complicated event in terms of “simpler” related events.
 Suppose that
 So,
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Conditional Probability and Independence
 A and B are said to be independent events, if
P( AB)  P( A)  P( B ).
 This definition is a probabilistic statement, not a set theoretic notion
such as mutually exclusiveness.
 If A and B are independent,
P( A | B ) 
P( AB)
P( A) P( B )

 P( A).
P( B )
P( B )
 Thus knowing that the event B has occurred does not shed any
more light into the event A.
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Independence - Example
Example
From a box containing 6 white and 4 black balls, we remove two balls at
random without replacement.
What is the probability that the first one is white and the second one is black?
P(W1  B2 )  ?
W1  B2  W1B2  B2W1.
P(W1B2 )  P( B2W1 )  P( B2 | W1 ) P(W1 ).
P (W1 ) 
6
6
3

 ,
6  4 10 5
P( B2 | W1 ) 
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P(W1 B2 ) 
4
4
 ,
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3 4 12
 
5 9 45
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Example - continued
 Are W1 and B2 independent?
Removing the first ball has two possible outcomes:
These outcomes form a partition because:
So,
P( B2 )  P( B2 | W1 ) P(W1 )  P( B2 | B1 ) P( B1 )

4 3
3
4 4 3 1 2 42 2
 

    
 ,
5  4 5 6  3 10 9 5 3 5
15
5
Thus the two events are not independent.
P( B2 ) P(W1 ) 
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2 3
4
  P( B2W1 ) 
5 5
15
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General Definition of Independence
 Independence between 2 or more events:
 Events A1,A2, ..., An are mutually independent if, for all possible
subcollections of k ≤ n events:
Example
In experiment of rolling a die,
A = {2, 4, 6}
B = {1, 2, 3, 4}
C = {1, 2, 4}.
Are events A and B independent?
What about A and C?
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Source: http://ocw.mit.edu
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Bayes’ Theorem
We have:
P( A | B ) 
Thus,
P( AB)
,
P( B )
P( AB)  P( A | B ) P( B ).
Also,
P( B | A) 
P( BA)
P( AB)

,
P( A)
P( A)
P( AB)  P( B | A) P( A).
P ( A | B ) P ( B )  P ( B | A) P ( A).
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Bayesian Updating: Application Of Bayes’ Theorem
 Suppose that A and B are dependent events and A has apriori
probability of P(A ) .
 How does Knowing that B has occurred affect the probability of A?
 The new probability can be computed based on Bayes’ Theorm.
 Bayes’ Theorm shows how to incorporate the knowledege about B’s
occuring to calculate the new probability of A.
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Bayesian Updating - Example
Example
 Suppose there is a new music device in the market that plays a new
digital format called MP∞. Since it’s new, it’s not 100% reliable.
 You know that
- 20% of the new devices don’t work at all,
- 30% last only for 1 year,
- and the rest last for 5 years.
 If you buy one and it works fine, what is the probability that it will last for 5
years?
Source: http://ocw.mit.edu
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Generalization of Bayes’ Theorem
A more general version of Bayes’ theorem involves partition of Ω :
P ( Ai | B ) 
P ( B | Ai ) P ( Ai )

P( B )
P ( B | Ai ) P ( Ai )
n
 P( B | A ) P( A )
i 1
In which,
i
,
i
Ai , i  1  n,
Represents a collection of mutually exclusive events with assiciated apriori
probabilities:
P( Ai ), i  1  n.
With the new information “B has occurred”, the information about Ai can be
updated by the n conditional probabilities:
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Bayes’ Theorem - Example
Example
1. Two boxes, B1 and B2 contain 100 and 200 light bulbs
respectively. The first box has 15 defective bulbs and the second 5.
Suppose a box is selected at random and one bulb is picked out.
a) What is the probability that it is defective?
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Example - Continued
Suppose we test the bulb and it is found to be defective. What is the
probability that it came from box 1?
P( B1 | D)  ?
P( B1 | D) 
P( D | B1 ) P( B1 ) 0.15  1 / 2

 0.8571.
P( D)
0.0875
 Note that initially,
P( B1 )  0.5;
 But because of greater ratio of defective bulbs in B1 ,this probability
is increased after the bulb determined to be defective..
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