Download introduction to the course`s rationale

COMM 100:
Semester Overview
John A. Cagle, Ph.D.
Communication
California State University, Fresno
COMM 100
 Theories of Human Communication is a course
designed to introduce upper division students
to communication theory from a scientific
perspective.
THEORY
 A theory is a scientific account of
phenomena.
 At a minimum it is a strategy for handling
observations in research, providing a
conceptual system for describing and
explaining.
Darnell's definition of theory
 "A theory is a set of statements, including
some lawlike generalizations, systematically
and logically related such that the set implies
something about reality.
 It is an argument that purports to provide a
necessary and sufficient explanation for a
range of phenomena.
 It must be capable of corrigibility--that is, it
must be possible to disconfirm or jeopardize it
by making observations.
 A theory is valuable to the extent that it
reduces the uncertainty about the outcome of a
specific set of conditions."
A theory includes
 an identification of the components or
conceptual categories by which we
classify the elements of a system;
 a specification of the characteristics of
these components; and
 a specification of a set of laws in
conformity with which states of the
system precede or succeed each other.
Law: As centrality increases,
rank increases.
Antecedent conditions:
C1
C2
C3 …
Cn
___________
Consequent conditions
E
Theory of Small Group Influence
Conformity
Influence
Centrality
Rank
Observability
Source: T.K. Hopkins, The Exercise of Influence in Small Groups
Think of True Love – what factors
produce true love, maintain it, or
destroy it?
Take out a piece of paper & write down
four of these main factors
Theory of True Love
TRUST
+ ATTITUDE
+ RECIPROCITY
+ COMMITMENT
+_< add your own >_
= True Love
Cagle’s Dirty Joke Theory:
Some Independent Variables
SOURCE: attraction, age, sex, status,
attitude, credibility, skill. . .
MESSAGE: clarity, language, timing,
delivery, organization, content. . .
RECEIVER: attitude, age, sex, status,
attitude, perception of source. . .
CHANNEL: live, VHS, print, book, email. . .
Cagle’s Dirty Joke Theory:
Some Dependent Variables
LAUGHTER
DISGUST
CONFUSION
PHYSICAL
LEAVING
COMPREHENSION
ATTITUDE CHANGE
Etc.
Cagle’s Dirty Joke Theory:
Variables
JOKE + SOURCE + MESSAGE +
RECEIVER + CHANNEL
= LAUGHTER + SHOCK +
CONFUSION
MIXED SEX + DIRTY JOKE = SHOCK
SAME SEX + DIRTY JOKE = HILARITY
COMMUNICATION
 Communication is a complex, pervasive
phenomena.
 Virtually every human endeavor involves
communication in some way.
 Consequently, there are a great many
communication theories--each, in its own way,
appropriate to those aspects of the
phenomena germane to its purpose.
Communication Mosaic:
A Metaphor
 First, the metaphor of a mosaic offers a
theoretical orientation to illumine the interconnectedness among all communication
theories.
 Second, it provides an overview of some of
the more interesting, provocative, and
heuristic theories within the major types of
communication theories.
 Meaning is created from bits and pieces
which our mind puts together into a gestalt.
Meaning Is Created
I cdnuolt blveiee taht I cluod aulaclty uesdnatnrd waht I
was rdgnieg
The phaonmneal pweor of the hmuan mnid Aoccdrnig to
a rscheearch at Cmabrigde Uinervtisy, it deosn't mttaer
inwaht oredr the ltteers in a wrod are, the olny iprmoatnt
tihng is taht the frist and lsat ltteer be in the rghit pclae.
The rset can be a taotl mses and you can sitll raed it
wouthit a porbelm. Tihs is bcuseae the huamn mnid deos
not raed ervey lteter by istlef, but the wrod as a wlohe.
Amzanig huh? yaeh and I awlyas thought slpeling was
ipmorantt!
Becker’s Mosaic Model of
Message
The main dimensions of the
mosaic model:
 Context
 Function
 Intention
 Variable
 Level of analysis
 Analytic and synthetic properties
 Audience
SCIENTIFIC INQUIRY
 Two Imperatives of Science
• Verifiability
• Corrigibility
 Philosophical Approaches
• Rules
• Systems
• Laws
Ideal Process in Science
Verifiability & Corrigibility
Kaplan links


Kaplan’s “styles of thinking” from The
Conduct of Inquiry
Hugh Duncan and Kenneth Burke
Theories Reflect Kaplan's
Levels of Thinking
 Literary
 Analytic is the logical
 Academic
character of scientific
statements
 Synthetic is the
empirical character
of scientific
statements
 Eristic
 Symbolic
 Postulational
 Formal
Kaplan’s Styles of Thinking
Formal
Postulational
Math—No empirical loadings
Empirical loadings
Eristic theories
Academic theories
Literary theories
Increasing Synthetic Rigor
NOIR: Kinds of Observation

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Nominal: something is observed and given a
name (e.g., hostile, leader, task)
Ordinal: things in the nominal category are
given a relationship to one another (e.g., tallshort, better-worse, etc.)
Interval: numbers to label things with a
relationship have precise distance between
them (e.g., 8 is twice as much as 4)
Ratio: there is a zero point in observation
(e.g., speech preparation, number of words)
Investigation


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
Select a phenomenon and list all its
characteristics.
Measure all of these characteristics in a
variety of situations.
Analyze the observations to determine if
there are any patterns worthy of further
attention.
If patterns have been found in the
observations, state these patterns as
theoretical statements.
Investigational Paradigm
Experimental Paradigm
Confirming Research



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Develop a theory.
Select a statement generated by the theory
(hypothesis) for comparison with observation
(empirical research).
Design a research project to “test” the chosen
statement’s by observation.
If the statement derived from the theory does not
correspond with observational results, make
appropriate changes in the theory or in the research
design and continue with the research.
If the statement from the theory corresponds with the
results of the research, select additional statements
for testing and/or apply theory in world with some
confidence.
Criteria to Evaluate Theories
 Theoretical scope
 Appropriateness
 Heuristic value
 Validity
 Parsimony
 Openness
[a new one]
 What parts of the mosaic comprise
the theory? What parts are left out?
Scientific
Humanistic
Epistemology
Discover the truth
Create meaning
Human Nature
Determinism
Free will
Value Priority
Objectivity
Emancipation
Purpose of Theory
Give universal laws
Give rules for interpretation
Research Methods
Experiment and Survey Textual analysis and ethnography
Explanation of data
Prediction of future
Standards for Evaluation Relative simplicity
Testable hypotheses
Practical utility
Understanding of people
Clarification of values
Aesthetic appeal
Community of agreement
Reform society
Ron Wright, University of Arizona
CRITERIA
Necessary
Desirable
 Logically consistent
 Simple
 Consistent with
 Parsimonious
accepted facts
 Testable
 Consistent with
related theories
 Interpretable: explain
and predict
 Useful
 Pleasing to the mind
Functions: Theories help us to…

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Organize and summarize knowledge
Focus our attention on important variables &
relationships
Clarify our interpretation of observations
Know what and how to observe the event
Explain and predict the event
Functions: Theories help us to…


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Think of new directions and questions to
research (heuristic function)
Frame our communication with others
about the phenomena
Control the phenomena through judging
effectiveness against a norm
THEORY, RESEARCH, AND
TECHNOLOGY:
Dynamic Isomorphism
 There exists a dynamic isomorphism among
reality, phenomena, theory, research design,
instrumentation, statistical analysis, and
computer technology.
 More elements are involved, but these illumine
the character of science as we move into the
21st Century.
Isomophism is the identity in form and substance
between all of these “constructions of reality.”
Isomophism is the identity in form and substance
between all of these “constructions of reality.”
What do you see?
What do
There's a face... and the word liar
Diversity in Theory:
Making sense of it all
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Traditions & Approaches to
Communication
Communication Contexts
Application, Function, and Purpose
TRADITIONS
[Littlejohn & Foss]

The Semiotic Tradition:

The Phenomenological Tradition: study of how
study of how signs come to
represent objects, ideas, states, situations, feelings, and conditions
outside of themselves.
people actively interpret their experience and come to understand the
world by personal experiences with it.

The Cybernetic Tradition:
study of complex
systems in which many interacting elements influence one another.
TRADITIONS

The Sociopsychological Tradition:

The Sociocultural Tradition:
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The Critical Tradition:

The Rhetorical Tradition:
study of the
individual as a social being—behavior and the personal traits and cognitive
processes that produce behavior.
study of the ways our
understandings, meanings, roles, norms, and rules are worked out
interactively in communication.
study of questions of privilege
and power—how race, nationality, religion, sexual orientation, income
level, etc. identity and social differences.
study of ways humans
use symbols to affect those around them and construct the worlds in
which they live.
ILLUSTRATIVE APPROACHES

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Public Speaking Approaches:
the Rhetorical Tradition
Trait Approaches
Persuasion Approaches
Verbal Behavior Approaches
Nonverbal Behavior Approaches
The Rhetorical Tradition
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Plato & Aristotle: Rhetoric as tool to
discover and use truth in governing
society
Cicero & Quintilian: Public speaking and
leadership as essential skills for
citizenship
Capella: Rhetoric as a foundation of all
learning (the Liberal Arts)

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St. Augustine: Something to do until you
get into heaven
Bacon: Rhetoric needed for
advancement of science
Adam Smith: Rhetoric and the belles
lettres
Cagle: Why don’t my students take
notes?
In all centuries, rhetoric

. . . responds to what’s going on in the
world, but enables and effects the world
of which it is a part
• War gives rise to political exigencies
• Depressions give rise to problem solving
• Prosperity gives rise to self-actualization
In the 20th Century. . . .


Rhetorical theory extended to all forms
of communication, including writing
&literature and small groups & problem
solving
Rhetorical principles were applied to new
media such as radio, television,
newspapers, computers, etc.
Trait Approaches
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Traits are consistent communication
behaviors across contexts
Personality traits: persuasibility, selfesteem, dogmatism, introversion
Communication apprehension and
willingness to communicate
Social style and self-disclosure
Aggression and assertiveness traits
Persuasion Approaches

Variable analytic:

Source credibility
Cognitive dynamics theories (attitudes)

• message structure,
• message appeals, and
• language variables
Verbal Behavior Approaches
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Metaphor and stylistic devices
Language intensity
Lexical diversity
Evidence
Fear appeals
Supportive and defensive messages
Nonverbal Behavior Approaches
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Affective-cognitive dimensions
Functions and relationships
Nonverbal codes:
• kinesics,
• vocalics,
• proximics, etc.
COMMUNICATION CONTEXTS
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Interpersonal Contexts
Small Group and Organizational
Contexts
Mass Media Contexts
Intercultural Contexts
Interpersonal Contexts
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Social exchange
Stages in relationship development and
decline: strangers to intimacy
Interpersonal circumplex
Self-concept and interpersonal attraction
Small Group and Organizational
Contexts
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Encounter groups and growth groups
Problem solving and decision making
Conflict management and resolution
Networks and organizations
Leadership and management
Mass Media Contexts
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Two-step flow
Diffusion of innovations
Uses and gratifications
Social role of media: stereotypes
Advertising and propaganda
Intercultural Contexts
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Cultures are big damn groups
Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis
Rules and roles
High and low context
Standpoint theory
International communication
APPLICATIONS
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Political communication and power
Agitation and control: social change
Religious communication
Psychology and Counseling
Business: sales, management,
marketing
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Government: management
Health communication
Education
Entertainment
Legal communication: civil and criminal
Let’s go back to the
beginning and get
started. . . .