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The Jeffersonian Era Brinkley Text Chapter 7 The Jeffersonian Era Jeffersonian ideals: A small republic, composed of small states The ideal citizen – a “yeoman” farmer (yeoman means experienced, skilled) All males “trained for democracy,” i.e., literate All females trained to be “Republican Mothers,” to raise their children ready for democracy The Jeffersonian Era The new “Cultural Americanism” American-style spelling, simplified and standardized by Noah Webster American-style literature, reflecting American urban and rural life in its ideal vision (Washington Irving, Charles B. Brown, etc.) American painters, glorifying the American landscape and people The Jeffersonian Era American religion; the “Second Great Awakening” Renewed piety (like first “Great Awakening”) Shows effects of expansion on traditional religion. People in frontier communities were isolated from big churches in large towns; formed their own The Jeffersonian Era Resistance to slavery among slaves Gabriel Prosser – slave rebel Growth of abolitionism Puritan-based religions rejected slavery on moral grounds Rise of Indian cultural pride The Jeffersonian Era The Industrial Revolution in Europe (began ca. 1750) comes to America. Plans for the “spinning Jenny” smuggled into the US (why was this smuggling necessary?) Rise of American inventors and inventions: most notable, Eli Whitney The Jeffersonian Era Whitney’s most lasting contribution to American manufacturing: interchangeable parts Whitney’s most famous (and most controversial) invention: the cotton engine, called “cotton ‘gin’” for short The Jeffersonian Era Cotton gin’s effects: Eliminated the tedious task of hand-combing seeds and hulls out of “short staple” cotton (the easiest kind to grow, hardest kind to harvest) Enabled cotton farming on vast plantations with fewer skilled laborers Contributed to the rise of plantation slavery The Jeffersonian Era Slavery probably would have died out without the cotton gin Founding Fathers had hoped it was dying out; had postponed any legal action on slavery until 1808 Foreign import of slaves banned in 1808; no need to import new slaves, due to “natural increase” in slave population The Jeffersonian Era Transportation innovations in America during the period Steam locomotives Better paving of roads Turnpikes Complex road systems INSIDE of states, often (but not always) connecting to road systems of other states The Jeffersonian Era Deficiencies in the American transportation “system” Lack of a “system” Each state built its own roads, with no government assistance Most existent roads went E-W, not N-S (Why?) This resulted in further connections between the East and the West, and further isolation and division between North and South The Jeffersonian Era Thomas Jefferson as president: strong Republican ideals Strict construction of the Constitution, at least early on. Jefferson eventually acted in several issues in a way that showed him to be a strong executive, capable of pressuring Congress if needed. The Jeffersonian Era Marbury v. Madison President Adams had appointed a number of new federal judges under the Judiciary Act of 1799. Jefferson’s Secretary of State, James Madison, refused to follow through on Adams’ “midnight appointments.” Was Madison’s duty; why would he not do it? The Jeffersonian Era William Marbury was one of these judges. Marbury demanded a “writ of mandamus” A paper (“writ” = court order) forcing a government official to perform his duties Case heard by The United States Supreme Court, since it involved a personal suit against a high federal official. The Jeffersonian Era Justice John Marshall new Chief Justice Marshall was also a “midnight appointment,” and should probably have recused himself from the case. He did not. The Jeffersonian Era Jefferson hoped that The Court would decide in favor of Madison But he expected that the verdict would come out in favor of Marbury, since both Marbury and Marshall were both strong Federalists. The Jeffersonian Era To Jefferson’s (and Madison’s) great surprise, verdict came in favor of Madison, not Marbury. Jefferson was pleased that his side “won,” but was NOT pleased with Marshall’s reasoning Marshall, a Federalist, had urged the other Court members to “grant cert” (issue a writ of certiorari, agreeing to hear Marbury’s case) because he felt an important principle – not politics – was at stake. The Jeffersonian Era Marshall believed that a large country required a strong central government – including a Supreme Court – that could use its authority Jefferson, as a Republican, saw the American ideal quite differently Marbury was first decision to overturn a law of Congress (Judiciary Act of 1799) The Jeffersonian Era Marshall was 2nd Chief Justice First Chief Justice, John Jay, had done very little to push the Court’s role Marshall more active Marshall sought to increase Court’s role Sought to establish that Court had the right to review laws of Congress The Jeffersonian Era Marshall changed many procedures Insisted that the Court issue only ONE opinion in each case it took, instead of 5 separate opinions Vowed to show the country that the Court, and only the Court, could decide which acts of Congress were proper and Constitutional. The Jeffersonian Era Marshall Court’s opinion issued in 1802 Marbury’s complaint was understandable but was not valid. The Jeffersonian Era Reason: Judiciary Act of 1799, under which Adams had made the appointment, was “unconstitutional.” That word had not been used before It was the first time the Supreme Court made this declaration about an Act of Congress. The Jeffersonian Era Created what has become known as “judicial review” Judicial review is the legal right of the Supreme Court to examine and overturn Acts of Congress. This principle is implied in the Constitution, but not stated outright. The Jeffersonian Era An example of “loose construction” Generally, Thomas Jefferson believed in “strict construction” The Jeffersonian Era Jefferson “won the battle, but lost the war.” Jefferson feared an increase of power for any branch of the federal government except for the Congress. But he had no choice but to accept Marshall’s (and The Court’s) opinion. The Jeffersonian Era However, Jefferson was open to use of loose construction with the purchase of Louisiana Territory in 1803. Jefferson sought to purchase only the city of New Orleans, to guarantee American farmers that the Mississippi River would remain open for shipment of their crops. The Jeffersonian Era Napoleon’s ambassador offered to sell all of Louisiana (see map next slide) The agreed-on sale price was $15,000,000 – just over $15 per ACRE. Adjusted for today’s dollars, the price would be nearly $300,000,000, and would still be a bargain! The Jeffersonian Era The Jeffersonian Era Jefferson doubted that he had the authority to make the purchase (why?) But he asked Congress for permission and quickly got it. Jefferson seems to have temporarily abandoned both his strict constructionism AND his desire for a small republic. The Jeffersonian Era New land was good for strengthening the country. Jefferson sent American explorers Meriwether Lewis and William Clark to map the new territory and to learn about the Indians, geography, and plant and animal life of the new acquisition. Lewis and Clark called their expedition “The Corps of Discovery.” The Jeffersonian Era Why had Napoleon been so eager to sell the land so quickly? Napoleon wanted to launch an all-out war against the nations of Europe, planning to conquer the entire continent and make it “The French Empire.” Napoleon needed cash, and realized he couldn’t spare troops to guard Louisiana. The Jeffersonian Era War between France and Great Britain was once again threatening Once again, each of those countries attempted to draw the United States into the center of their conflict. The Jeffersonian Era Jefferson began quietly to boost the nation’s military forces. Set up a military academy (West Point). But he worked to avoid war, which would be disastrous for the new country. The Jeffersonian Era Jefferson attempted to use trade as a “weapon” Urged Congress to order an embargo of ALL goods going to and from either France or Great Britain. His hope: this pressure would cause the two countries to stop pressuring the US to take a side in their struggle. The Jeffersonian Era The strategy backfired It hurt the United States, particularly shippers in New England. France and Great Britain just traded with other countries. New England merchants were angry with Jefferson. The US settled into economic depression. The Jeffersonian Era Early political cartoon shows Jefferson choking the United States Caption has “embargo” spelled backwards Caption reads “O grab me!” The Jeffersonian Era Great Britain’s navy began to seize American merchant ships in order to kidnap American sailors. Britain officially denounced this practice of impressment. – See also “Billy Budd, Foretopman” by Herman Melville Many Britons felt that American sailors were “really” British and that the practice was justified. The Jeffersonian Era Jefferson unhappy and unpopular Served two terms, decided not to run again in 1808 (continuing twoterm custom) But there was no strong Federalist to run, either. Jefferson’s successor in the 1808 election was his Secretary of State, James Madison. The Jeffersonian Era Jefferson and Madison had each served a president as Secretary of State This started a popular idea among Americans that Secretary of State job was “stepping stone to the presidency” Madison as President Madison tried Jefferson’s strategy of “peaceable coercion” in 1809 Urged Congress to OK trade with all of Europe EXCEPT for Britain and France This new law called “Non-Intercourse” Replaced in 1810 with “Macon’s Bill #2” Madison as President Macon bill had a “catch” President could allow trade with France or Britain IF they agreed to accept neutral US Madison said US would trade with either nation if the other kept stopping ships France ceased the interference, and war with Britain seemed likely Madison and the War of 1812 Other “side causes” of war: Britain urging Indians in west to make war on Settlers Some land-hungry Americans hoped to “win” Canada by defeating Britain again Southerners hoped to expand this war to Florida, acquire more land there Madison and the War of 1812 “War Hawks” (urged war with England) were regional Tended to be Southerners and Westerners Tended to be younger, ambitious Congressmen Typical: Henry Clay, Daniel Webster, John C. Calhoun Madison and the War of 1812 Northeasterners resisted call to war Would hurt shipping, hurt their region most War Hawks got control of Congress in 1810 election Declared war summer of 1812 Madison and the War of 1812 William Henry Harrison became well-known hero after defeating Indians in West British briefly captured Washington DC, burned much of the town New US Navy helpful in defeating British Peace treaty: Treaty of Ghent “status quo ante bellum” Madison and the War of 1812 Close to end of war, “Hartford Convention” in New England sought to secede, create a new country, “Dominion of New England” Plan became known just as war ended Federalists who led Hartford Convention seemed treasonous Death of Federalist Party Madison and the War of 1812 After shooting ended, but before peace was announced, Andrew Jackson led great British defeat at New Orleans Made Jackson a war hero (even though war was technically over at the time) Possible that Jackson had been informed of cease fire, chose to ignore Madison and the War of 1812 International outcomes of war: No land lost or gained Great Britain finally accepted status of USA as forever an independent country Great Britain and USA from then on solved all difficulties by treaty (e.g., Rush-Bagot setting boundaries in Great Lakes area)