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Division or unification? Devolution or Suprantionalism? Devolution is the granting of powers from the central government of a Sovereign state to government at a subnational level, Supranationalism government beyond or above the state supranational organizations: collections of individual states with a common goal that may be economic and/or political in nature; such organizations diminish, to some extent, individual state sovereignty in favor of the group interests of the membership. The more states participate in such multilateral associations, the less likely they are to act alone in pursuit of a self-interest that might put them at odds with neighbors. States cooperate with each other for the following reasons: • military • political • economic Examples of Military Cooperation: North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)a cross-Atlantic military alliance/organization An attack against one is an attack against all. The growth of NATO was a major concern to Russia, where this has become a leading political issue. Russia’s sense of encirclement on the Eurasian landmass has always been a factor in Russian nationalism. The Shanghai Cooperation Organisation or SCO is an intergovernmental mutual-security organisation which was founded in 2001 in Shanghai by the leaders of China, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russia, Tajikistan, and Uzbekistan. Although the declaration on the establishment of the Shanghai Cooperation Organization contained a statement that it "is not an alliance directed against other states and regions and it adheres to the principle of openness", many observers believe that one of the original purposes of the SCO was to serve as a counterbalance to NATO and the United States and in particular to avoid conflicts that would allow the United States to intervene in areas bordering both Russia and China Peace and Security Council (PSC) of the African Union, formed in 2004. More a version of the United Nations Security Council than a true military alliance. South American Defense Council (SADC) of the Union of South American Nations, developed form 2008. Full extent of provisions yet to be agreed. South Korea and the United States entered into a military alliance following the Korean War. Examples of political cooperation: • African Union (AU): a cultural alliance to promote shared goals and resolve disputes • Arab League: a multinational alliance of Muslim states in North Africa and Southwest Asia. The United Nations (UN) is an international organization (supranational) whose stated aims are facilitating cooperation in international law, international security, economic development, social progress, human rights, and the achieving of world peace established at the end of World War II. Over the past half century, the number of sovereign states in the world has increased by more than a hundred It now includes 193 member states (not including the Taiwan, Kosovo, or the Vatican) The United Nations is not a world government; member states participate voluntarily. Although member states do not formally yield any sovereignty to the UN they may agree to abide by specific UN decisions. At the very least, the UN provides a place for the nations of the world to have dialogue. In a world where free trade and marketbased development continues to grow, the UN has successfully improved: • problems of infant mortality, • nutrition, • education • in many parts of the world. The United Nations Security Council (UNSC) is one of the principal organs of the United Nations and is charged with the maintenance of international peace and security. Its powers, outlined in the United Nations Charter, include the establishment of peacekeeping operations, the establishment of international sanctions, and the authorization of military action. International Economic Sanctions: penalties imposed by one or several states on another state to compel that state to amend its behavior. Economic sanctions include, but are not limited to, tariffs, trade barriers, and import duties. The most famous example of an economic sanction is the fiftyyear-old United States embargo against Cuba. Economic sanctions are not always imposed because of economic circumstances. For example, the United States has imposed economic sanctions against Iran for years, on the basis that the Iranian government sponsors groups who work against US interests. The United Nations imposed stringent economic sanctions upon Iraq after the first Gulf War, and these were maintained partly as an attempt to make the Iraqi government co-operate with the UN weapons inspectors' monitoring of Iraq's weapons and weapons programs. These sanctions were unusually stringent in that very little in the way of trade goods were allowed into or out of Iraq during the sanction period. There is a United Nations sanctions regime imposed by UN Security Council against all Al-Qaida- and Taliban-associated individuals. The cornerstone of the regime is a consolidated list of persons maintained by the Security Council. All nations are obliged to freeze bank accounts and other financial instruments controlled by, or used for the benefit of, anyone on the list. List of United Nations Security Council Resolutions 1901 to 2000 http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_Nations_Security_Council_ Resolutions_1901_to_2000 There are 15 members of the Security Council, consisting of 5 veto-wielding permanent members (China, France, Russia, the United Kingdom, and the United States) 2009 map and 10 elected non-permanent members with twoyear terms. One proposed measure is to increase the number of permanent members by five, which, in most proposals, would include Brazil, Germany, India, Japan (known as the G4 nations), one seat from Africa (most likely between Egypt, Nigeria or South Africa) and/or one seat from the Arab League. On 21 September 2004, the G4 nations issued a joint statement mutually backing each other's claim to permanent status, together with two African countries. Currently the proposal has to be accepted by two-thirds of the General Assembly (128 votes). The UN does not have its own army, so the Security Council borrows forces for each mission from the armies of member countries. Peacekeeping: nonaggressive use of military force to help nations in conflict reach a settlement. The UN’s peacekeeping forces play a neutral role, working to calm regional conflicts in several ways. They can: • go into an area of conflict as observers, making sure agreements reached between opposing sides are being followed. • provide a buffer between warring parties by physically interposing themselves in the middle. • negotiate with military officers on both sides, providing a channel of communication. • monitor cease-fires, supervise elections, and provide humanitarian aid. Despite problems, the United Nations’ peacekeeping role has continued to grow, and its successes have far outweighed its failures. In places such as East Timor and Kosovo, for example, UN peacekeepers have helped bring stability after upheavals in the late 1990s. More than 40,000 peacekeeping troops from some 80 UN member states are serving in Bosnia, the Congo, Croatia, Cyprus, East Timor, Ethiopia and Eritrea, Georgia, Iraq/Kuwait, Kashmir, Kosovo, Lebanon, various parts of the Middle East, Sierra Leone, and Western Sahara. Why do some Americans hate and fear the UN? The UN constrains the United States by creating the one coalition that can rival U.S. power—that of all other nations. Gun control Death penalty System of measurement The United States has a streak of isolationism in its foreign policy that runs counter to the idea of the UN. Mulitlateralism: decision making and participation by more than two countries, parties, etc. Unilateralism: one sided decision making and participation. Unilateralism may be preferred in those instances when it's assumed to be the most efficient. Larger states often act unilaterally, while the smaller ones may have little direct power. Multilateralism may involve multiple nations acting together as in the UN or may involve regional or military alliances, pacts, or groupings such as NATO. Proponents of multilateralism argue that it would provide a country with greater resources, both militarily and economically, and would help in defraying the cost of military action. However, with divided responsibility inevitably comes divided authority, and thus (in theory at least) slower military reaction times and the demand that troops follow commanders from other nations. Multilateralists argue that co-operations strengthens the bonds between nations and peoples, paints the U.S. in a more responsible and respected light, and reduces the risk of wildfire conflicts by increasing the size and unity of the enemy such a rogue nation would face. “The Bush Doctrine" came to describe the controversial policy of preventive war, which held that the United States should depose foreign regimes that represented a potential or perceived threat to the security of the United States, even if that threat was not immediate; a policy of spreading democracy around the world, especially in the Middle East, as a strategy for combating terrorism; and a willingness to unilaterally pursue U.S. military interests. Debates about unilateralism recently came to the forefront with the Iraq War. While over 30 countries have supported the U.S. policy, some previous American allies, such as France, Germany and Turkey, are not participating. Many opponents of the war have argued that the United States is "going in alone" in Iraq without the support of multilateral institutions—in this case NATO and the United Nations. Advocates of U.S. unilateralism argue that other countries should not have "veto power" over matters of U.S. national security. Presidential Candidate John Kerry received heavy political heat after saying, during a presidential debate, that American national security actions must pass a "global test". This was interpreted by Kerry opponents as a proposal to submit U.S. foreign policy to approval by other countries. Proponents of U.S. unilateralism generally believe that a multilateral institution, such as the United Nations, is morally suspect because, they argue, it treats non-democratic, and even despotic, regimes as being as legitimate as democratic countries. Proponents also point out that the unilateralist policy of having the United States control post World War II, Japan was more of a success than having multilateral policies such as those used in post war Germany. Japan took only 5 years before adopting its constitution while Germany was divided into West Germany and East Germany for 45 years and being controlled by the United States, France, Great Britain, and the Soviet Union before being reunited. Examples of Economic Cooperation: The Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), is a cartel of twelve developing countries made up of Algeria, Angola, Ecuador, Iran, Iraq, Kuwait, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, the United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. Its principal goals are to • eliminate the harmful and unnecessary fluctuations in the price of oil • securing a steady income to the producing countries • Produce a regular supply of petroleum to consuming nations, • and produce a profit to those investing in the petroleum industry. UAE OPEC's influence on the market has been widely criticized, since it became effective in determining production and prices. Arab members of OPEC alarmed the developed world when they used the “oil weapon” during the Yom Kippur War by implementing oil embargoes and initiating the 1973 oil crisis. Escalation in oil prices caused severe economic problems during the 70s OPEC's ability to control the price of oil has diminished somewhat since then, due to the subsequent discovery and development of large oil reserves in Alaska, the North Sea, Canada, the Gulf of Mexico, and the opening up of Russia. OPEC nations still account for two-thirds of the world's oil reserves, and, as of April 2009, 33.3% of the world's oil production, affording them considerable control over the global market. As early as 2003, concerns that OPEC members had little excess pumping capacity sparked speculation that their influence on crude oil prices would begin to slip. Examples of economic cooperation: Often called trading blocs: a type of intergovernmental agreement, often part of a regional intergovernmental organization, where regional barriers to trade (tariffs and non-tariff barriers) are reduced or eliminated among the participating states. NAFTA: The North American Free Trade Agreement (Jan.1994) a free-trade area between the U.S., Canada and Mexico; provides for the tariff-free movement of goods and products, financial services, telecommunications, investment, and patent protection. The top three countries receiving California exports in order are: Mexico, Japan, Canada The top 3 countries, in order, that sent tourists to California: Mexico, Japan, Canada Other economic trading blocs (not on test): • The majority of the Caribbean island-states, with Belize in Middle American and Guyana in South American, are linked in the Caribbean Community (CARICOM) • Central American Common Market, with seven members extending from Guatemala to Panama. • The Andean Group: Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia • Southern Cone Community Market • MERCOSUR: Brazil, Argentina, Uruguay, and Paraguay. • ECOWAS: the Economic Community of West African States. • APEC (Asia-Pacific Economic Council) • CIS (Commonwealth of Independent States): former republics of the USSR The largest economic organization is the World Trade Organization (WTO) is an organization that intends to supervise and liberalize international trade. The organization deals with regulation of trade between participating countries; it provides a framework for negotiating and formalizing trade agreements, and a dispute resolution process aimed at enforcing participants' adherence to WTO agreements. The WTO has 153 members, representing more than 97% of total world trade and 30 observers, most seeking membership World Trade Organization (WTO): sets up the ground rules of international trade (tries to eliminate trade barriers) suprantional in scope The organization is currently endeavoring to persist with a trade negotiation called the Doha Development Agenda (or Doha Round), which was launched in 2001 to enhance equitable participation of poorer countries which represent a majority of the world's population. However, the negotiation has been dogged by "disagreement between exporters of agricultural bulk commodities and countries with large numbers of subsistence farmers on the precise terms of a 'special safeguard measure' to protect farmers from surges in imports. LDCs argue the US and Europe subsidize (give tax payer money) their farmers making it hard for their farmers to compete with such low prices. MDCs argue for open markets. The best example of supranationalism is the European Union: an economic and political union of 27 member states. Western European countries have increased economic integration by: • lowering and eliminating trade barriers • allowing labor to move freely • coordinating a common foreign policy • creating a centralized fiscal policy (common currency) The population of 500 million inhabitants, generated an estimated 28% share (US$ 16.5 trillion) of the nominal gross world product in 2009. As a trading bloc the EU accounts for 20% of global imports and exports. European countries have different cultures but similar Ideology: • democracy • rule of law • market economy Switzerland is not a member The euro is the official currency of the eurozone: 17 of the 27 Member States of the European Union (EU). The currency is also used in a further five European countries and is consequently used daily by some 327 million Europeans. Over 175 million people worldwide use currencies which are pegged to the euro, including more than 150 million people in Africa. The euro is the second largest reserve currency as well as the second most traded currency in the world after the U.S. dollar. As of June 2010, with more than €800 billion in circulation, the euro has the highest combined value of banknotes and coins in circulation in the world, having surpassed the U.S. dollar. Based on IMF estimates of 2008 GDP and purchasing power parity among the various currencies, the eurozone is the second largest economy in the world. Euro-zone: The EU counties using the euro U.K., Sweden, and Denmark do not use the euro. They worried that a shared European currency would threaten their national identity and governmental authority. Expansion of EU: • Under the rules of the EU, the richer countries must subsidize the poorer ones • Economically weak countries will become a burden Turkey: Poor human rights record An unspoken sense among many that Turkey is not “European” enough to warrant membership. Problems in the EU: • loss of local autonomy • balance of power in the European Union. • different ethnic traditions and histories of conflict and competition. • enthusiasm for the Union is not very high in key countries (France). Areas the EU and the USA disagree • the U.S. farm bill • steel tariffs • the international criminal court • global warming • Convention against torture – jail inspection nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) any nonprofit, voluntary citizens' group which is organized on a local, national or international level. ex: Doctors without borders Amnesty International World Wildlife Fed. Supernational organizations have become a reality because the state system is an inadequate instrument for dealing with world issues and problems. Interstate cooperation is so widespread around the world that a new era clearly arrived. Random TQs Capital cities typically symbolize the cultural and historic identify of their countries. When a country succumbs to devolutionary forces, it divides along regional lines. Political unity in the ancient world reached its height in the Roman Empire Boundaries were redrawn in much of Europe after World War I according to the distribution of languages The Baltic Republics • were independent between World Wars I and II • have a well-developed economic base compared to other former Soviet Republics • have population majorities that are non-Russia The main cause of civil strife in Rwanda stems from the Belgian colonial practice of favoring Tutsis Two cities in Morocco, Ceuta and Melilla, are controlled by Spain The first widespread use of the nation-state concept came in Western Europe. A state is a good example of an organized region. The first states in ancient Mesopotamia were city-states. The Fertile Crescent • followed the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. • extended from the Persian Gulf to the Mediterranean Sea. • is another name for Mesopotamia. Colonists from Holland (Dutch) and Britain were the principal white settlers of South Africa The motives of European states in establishing colonies can be summarized as gold, God, and glory. The world's smallest colony is Pitcairn. Taiwan is not a member of the United Nations The most populous colony is ruled by the United States. The British created different government structures for its various colonies to help protect the cultures in their territories. Colonialism created political and economic structures that caused the colonies to become dependent on the imperial powers. Europe emerged as the core of the world-system because of its: • economic system of capitalism • rapidly growing population • technological innovations States try to gain and maintain advantages in the world market: They can do this in several ways: • by manipulating markets (protecting domestic manufacturers by charging taxes on imports, for example) • by regulating their economies (enacting laws that help to establish stable labor markets, for example) • by creating physical and social infrastructures (spending public funds on road systems, ports, educational systems, and so on). The problems experienced by Cyprus during the past two decades include: • a Greek-inspired military coup • a Turkish army invasion • an increasing spatial segregation of Greeks and Turks With the breakup of the Soviet Union, nearly all Russians are clustered in Russia's western regions. Conflict is widespread in Africa in part because European colonial powers drew inappropriate boundaries. With the end of the Cold War, economic competition among regions has become more important than military competition Among the Azerbaijanis, Armenians, and Kurds, the Azerbaijanis are the only group that speak an Altaic language. As a result of a 1979 Soviet invasion, what country generated one of the world's largest refugee migrations in Afghanistan NAFTA is primarily a economic effort The European Union is primarily what a political and economic cooperative effort? What distinguished the Russian Empire from other empires existing in the nineteenth century was that it incorporated conquered territories into the state (annexed) The European Union has promoted economic growth in Western Europe. Members of the Council of Mutual Economic Assistance (COMECON) were also members of Warsaw Pact Berlin Conference (1884-1885) laid out the colonial map of Africa and tried to decrease the probability of war between European states The United Nations is primarily a political cooperative effort