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Chapter 3 – Developing a National Identity
Section Notes
Video
From Nationalism to Sectionalism
A Push for Reform
Expansion Leads to Conflict
From Nationalism to Sectionalism
A Push for Reform
Expansion Leads to Conflict
Maps
Quick Facts
Nationalism and Sectionalism
Causes and Effects of the
Mexican-American War
Missouri Compromise, 1820
Indian Removal, 1830s – 1840s
Western Trails
The Mexican-American War,
1846 – 1848
Images
Early Steam Engine
Waves of Immigration
Pioneer Camp
California Gold Rush
From Nationalism to Sectionalism
The Main Idea
In the early 1800s, feelings of nationalism grew, although conflicts
between different regions of the United States were also emerging.
Reading Focus
• What events reflected the rise of nationalism in the United States?
• What was the Age of Jackson?
• How did the Industrial Revolution affect the North?
• What was the importance of cotton in the South?
Under President James Monroe, America’s
foreign and domestic policies reflected rising
nationalism and the growing economy.
Domestic Policy
• Monroe’s presidency, from
1817-1825, was called the “era
of good feelings.”
• Growing nationalism was
reflected in two landmark
Supreme Court cases
– McCulloch v. Maryland:
Sided with the federal
government on the
national bank issue,
holding national interests
above state interests
– Gibbons v. Ogden: Gave
the national government
sole right to regulate
interstate commerce
Foreign Policy
• The War of 1812 sparked
national pride for Americans.
• Monroe’s foreign policy included
– The Adams-Onís Treaty
(1819): Acquired Florida as
a boundary between
Louisiana and Spanish land;
let Americans settle
Oregon for 10 years
– The Monroe Doctrine:
Made America off-limits to
European colonization;
stated that America should
stay out of European affairs
and vice versa
The Missouri Compromise
• Pride in the rapid spread of settlement fueled American
nationalism, though it also caused some controversy.
• Of the 22 states existing in 1819, exactly half legally allowed
slavery, most of which were Southern.
• This exact balance allowed for equal representation in the
Senate, which would be disturbed if Missouri were granted
statehood as a slave state.
• The Missouri Compromise admitted two states to the union
instead of one: Missouri, a slave state and Maine, a free state.
Though the Missouri Compromise kept the balance, feelings
of sectionalism, or the belief that the interests of one’s
own region is more important than the whole, were
emerging between the North and South.
The Age of Jackson
Jackson’s Presidency
• Andrew Jackson lost his first election to John Quincy Adams, but defeated
Adams after his first term.
• Jackson supporters created a new party, the Democratic Party, and Adams
supporters became known as the National Republicans.
• Jackson’s presidency is known as the “Age of Jackson.”
Native American Conflicts
•Jackson’s presidency is marked by conflict with the Native Americans,
especially five major groups in the Southeast whose land settlers wanted.
•Jackson’s solution was the Indian Removal Act, which called for the
relocation of Native American groups to an area west of the Mississippi River.
Native American Relocation
• The U.S. Army supervised the relocation, in which Native Americans were
forced to march hundreds of miles in miserable conditions.
• So many Cherokees suffered and died that the march became known as the
Trail of Tears.
Conflict between Federal and State Authority
The National Bank
• Congress established the Second
Bank of the United States in
1816 to regulate state banks,
which grew rapidly after the
demise of the First Bank of the
United States.
• Jackson believed that Congress
did not have the authority to
create a national bank.
• Jackson knew that state banks
made it easier for poor farmers in
the South and West to get loans.
• Jackson sealed the fate of the
bank by ordering the secretary of
the treasury to remove national
bank money and put it in state
banks.
States’ Rights
• Conflict rose over dividing
federal and state powers.
• States’ rights supporters
invoked the Tenth Amendment,
which reserved all powers not
specifically delegated as federal
for the states.
• Southerners did not like
foreign–good tariffs. South
Carolina declared an 1832 tariff
“null and void,” and threatened
to secede from the Union, which
began the nullification crisis.
• Jackson used military force to
collect tariffs, but Henry Clay
worked out an agreement to
lower taxes for 10 years.
The Industrial North
• The Industrial Revolution (mid-1700s to mid-1800s)
included the birth of modern industry and the social changes
that accompanied industrial growth.
• The steam engine was crucial to the British Industrial
Revolution, mostly due to improvements James Watt made
late in the century.
• The British made laws to prevent their knowledge of these
industrial machines from spreading, but Samuel Slater
violated those laws by building a textile mill in Rhode Island,
launching the Industrial Revolution in America.
• Industrialization led to urbanization, as the percentage of the
population who lived in cities doubled within 30 years.
Transportation and Communication
Advancements
Roads
By 1840 a network of roads connected most U.S. cities, promoting travel
and trade.
Canals
In 1825 the Erie Canal connected the Great Lakes and Atlantic Ocean and
providing a quick, economical shipping route. More than 3,000 canals
were built in the Northeast over the next 15 years.
Railroads
In 1830 the first steam-powered train ran in the U.S., and by 1840, 3,000
miles of track crossed the country, increasing travel and transport.
The Telegraph
In 1840 Samuel Morse patented the revolutionary telegraph, a
communication device that allowed instantaneous communications. How
might the telegraph benefit American society?
Cotton and the South
The Cotton Revolution
Slavery Spreads
• Eli Whitney’s cotton gin, which
separated the seeds from the
usable parts of the cotton,
made large-scale cotton
production possible.
• Between 1810 and 1840
the number of enslaved
African Americans in the
U.S. more than doubled to
2.5 million.
• The cotton gin was simple, but
had a major impact on life in
the South
– The booming textile
industry in the North
bought cotton to weave
into cloth.
– The British Industrial
Revolution raised the
demand for cotton,
making Southern cotton
very valuable to grow.
• Slavery had been growing
in the south since the
1820s via Virginia tobacco
farming.
• Laws restricting the rights
of African Americans had
been in place since the
1620s in colonial America.
• Slaveries continued growth
led to stronger slavery
opposition, or abolitionism.
Differences in the North and South
• The economic differences between the industrial North and the
agricultural South led to greater differences between the two
regions.
• Trade and industry led to Northern urbanization, and transportation
and communication advances were used by Northern industrialists.
• The greatest difference centered around slavery, which was legal
and viewed as economically vital in the South, but illegal and
viewed as problematic in the North.
North
South
• Free states
• Slave states
• Favored a strong national
government
• Favored states’ rights
• More nationalist
• Urban / Industrial
• Stronger transportation network
• More sectionalist
• Rural / Agricultural
• Weaker transportation network
• Dependent on slave labor
A Push for Reform
The Main Idea
The Reform Era led to some improvements in American society as
well as the beginning of the women’s movement and the abolition
movement.
Reading Focus
• How did religion spark reform in the early nineteenth century?
• How did early immigration lead to urban reform?
• What was the role of women in the Reform Era?
• What was the abolition movement?
Religion Sparks Reform
• Western New York became known as the Burned-Over District as
the flames of religion took over the minds of the people. New
movements included
Mormon, started by Joseph Smith
Seventh-day Adventist, started by William Miller
Shaker farms, utopian communities, Spiritualism
• Across the country, especially in the North, Americans
experienced the Second Great Awakening.
• Preachers of the Second Great Awakening were Protestant, and
they did not preach adherence to church rules or obedience to a
minister, but rather that hard work and dedication could bring
heaven on earth.
• The Second Great Awakening’s moral focus sparked the Reform
Era, a time when Americans tried to reshape their society.
The Reform Era
• The Reform Era lasted from about 1830 to 1860.
• The men and women who participated in the many reform
movements were called reformers.
• Key reforms of this period included
The Temperance
Movement
Tried to lessen
or eliminate the
use of alcohol
Education
Reform
Worked to
improve the subpar education
system
Prison Reform
Dorothea Dix
Worked for better
conditions and
new institutions
for mentally ill
• One of the most remarkable movements of this era was the
transcendentalism movement of New England.
– Believed knowledge is not found only through observation of the
world but by reason, intuition, and personal spiritual experience
– Ralph Waldo Emerson and Henry David Thoreau were members.
Early Immigration
• Irish and Germans were two of the first groups to come to
the U.S. in large numbers.
• By 1860 the U.S. was home to about 3 million Irish and
German immigrants.
• Many immigrants, especially the Irish, were poor and
struggling.
• Anti-immigrant sentiment was promoted by several
groups, including the Know-Nothings, who were called
that because when asked about their activities, members
said “I know nothing.”
• They formed a political party called the American Party,
which had more than 1 million members by the 1850s.
• Hostility was mostly directed toward the Irish, who were
mainly poor and Catholic, whereas Germans generally had
more money and were Protestant.
Reform in Cities and Industries
Urban Reform
• Growing cities had many immigrants living in tenements, or poorly
made, crowded apartment buildings that were filthy and dark.
• In an early reform effort, local boards of health set sanitation rules in
some cities, though conditions remained bad for many years.
Industrial Reform
• From 1820 to 1860 the number of American manufacturing workers
soared from 5 percent to more than 30 percent, which had far–
reaching social results.
• Workers were given long hours, unsafe conditions, and low wages.
• Workers began to organize into groups, demanding better working
conditions, and starting the American labor movement.
• The Ten-Hour Movement caused President Jackson to declare 10hour work days for some federal workers. President Martin Van
Buren later extended the rule to others in 1840.
Women in the Reform Era
Women Reformers
• Though women could not vote,
serve on juries, or run for office,
they played a large role in reform
movements such as prison
reform, education reform, and
the temperance movement.
• All reform movements were
rooted in the moral changes of
the Second Awakening, and this
opened doors for women.
– Many women did good
works
– Started Bible groups
– Started missionary societies
that later became reform
societies
– Focused on issues from
education to urban reform
Women’s Right Movement
• The Seneca Falls
Convention in 1848 was
the first women’s rights
convention in America.
• Dedicated abolitionists
Lucretia Mott and
Elizabeth Cady Stanton
organized the convention.
• The Seneca Falls
Declaration, held: “men and
women were created equal.”
• The declaration was widely
ridiculed, as were the
women and few men who
supported it.
Life as an Enslaved Person
• Enslaved African Americans were denied their most basic right —
freedom. They had no choice but to work whenever the slaveholder
demanded it.
• Most enslaved people lived on farms or plantations in the South, doing
farm work, hard labor, or servant duties in the household.
• In cities, enslaved people worked in mills, offices, and homes; they
also worked in the mines and in forests as lumberjacks.
• Enslaved people mostly lived in intolerable conditions
•
–
Poor food and shelter
–
Non-existent medical care
–
Psychological, physical & sexual assault
–
Possibility of separation from family
Despite this, many found comfort in community, culture, and religion.
Anti-Slavery Efforts in the South
• Freed men and women faced legal and social discrimination, yet
still played a large role in anti-slavery activities.
• Many freemen helped enslaved people escape, and many bravely
spoke out for freedom for all African Americans.
• In 1831 the deadliest slave uprising in American history took
place. Nat Turner and his accomplices killed dozens of whites
before the uprising was put down by a local militia.
• Other enslaved African Americans chose to attempt escape,
trying to reach the free states of the North, Canada, or Mexico.
•
Over the years, a constantly changing network of escape routes
developed called the Underground Railroad. Sympathetic whites
and freemen provided help to escaping slaves. Harriet Tubman,
who escaped slavery herself, helped many on their journey to
freedom.
The Abolition Movement in the North
• The number of enslaved people trying to escape increased in the
1830s, possibly encouraged by an anti-slavery movement in the
Northern states.
• The Second Great Awakening’s focus on morality caused many
Northerners to see slavery as wrong and ungodly.
• Many joined reform societies to stop slavery
• 1833: William Lloyd
Garrison founded
the American AntiSlavery Society.
• It was the first
group to call for an
immediate end to
U.S. slavery.
• In five years, had
over 1,500 chapters
in the North.
• Many abolitionists
were women.
• Sarah and Angela
Grimké, daughters
of a Southern
slaveholder, were
abolitionists.
• They moved to the
North to support
abolition and
women’s rights.
• Frederick
Douglass, who
escaped slavery,
was a leading
abolitionist.
• He published an
1845 biography,
Narrative of the
Life of Frederick
Douglass.
Opposition to Abolition
• Though the majority of white southerners did not own
enslaved people, the minority who did found abolition
outrageous, as if it were an attack on their livelihood and,
to some, their religion.
• Slaveholders argued that slavery was essential to cotton
production, which was a powerful argument even in the
North, because cotton accounted for 55% of American
exports.
• In fact, most Northerners supported slavery as well, since
freedom for slaves meant more competition for jobs.
• Still, the pressure to abolish slavery in the U.S. was
undeniable.
Expansion Leads to Conflict
The Main Idea
As the United States pushed westward, conflict erupted
between Texas and Mexico.
Reading Focus
• How did the idea of manifest destiny influence Americans’
western migration?
• How did Texas achieve independence from Mexico?
• What were the causes and effects of the Mexican-American
War?
Manifest Destiny Encourages Settlers
• Hundreds of thousands of Americans migrated West in the
1840s and 1850s, settling in different places, yet sharing the
dream of new opportunity.
• Some Americans believed in Manifest Destiny, which
meant they thought it was America’s God-given right to
settle western lands.
• Several major western trails were well-established by 1850:
The Santa Fe Trail
led from
Independence,
Missouri to Santa
Fe, New Mexico.
The Oregon Trail
was the longest,
most famous trail
leading from
Independence
Missouri to the
Willamette Valley
in Oregon.
The Mormon Trail
was the path that
Joseph Smith’s
persecuted
Mormons followed
in search of
religious freedom in
the West.
The Gold Rush
• In 1848 a carpenter discovered gold at John Sutter’s sawmill in
northern California.
• News of gold spread and many migrated to California; this mass
migration of miners, and businesspeople who made money from
miners, was called the Gold Rush.
• The 80,000 migrants called forty-niners left for California in 1849;
this population boom enabled California’s statehood a year later.
• In the 1850s the dream of finding gold brought people from all
over the world, but mostly from America, to California. They came
on the California Trail, on ships, and on mule trains.
• In California, miners moved into camps and businesspeople
moved into booming cities like San Francisco, Sacramento, and
Stockton.
The Major Effects of Western Migration
• Use of the western trails declined sharply after 1869 when railroad tracks
ran unbroken from the East to West Coasts.
• By that time, over 350,000 migrants, or about 1.5 percent of the total
American population at that time, had followed overland trails West.
• This huge migration had significant effects, especially for the Native
Americans who already lived in the West.
The Oregon Treaty
• Many Americans were present in
Oregon Country due to migration.
• Presidential candidate James K.
Polk attempted to secure Oregon
for the U.S., because it was jointly
controlled by America and Britain.
• The Oregon Treaty set the
boundary between British Canada
and the United States at the 49th
parallel.
• This border still exists.
Communication Links
• Western migration created a
need for long-distance
communication.
• The Pony Express, a relay chain
of horsemen across the U.S.,
brought mail more quickly than
regular mail could.
• Later, the telegraph allowed for
instant communication and
made the Pony Express obsolete.
Americans Move into Texas
•
In the 1500s, European explorers from Spain claimed Texas and tried to
convert Native Americans to Christianity and to counter the threat of
French settlement.
•
By the 1800s Spain still claimed Texas but only had three settlements,
which led Americans to start entering the area.
•
In 1820 Moses Austin, an American banker, proposed the Texas Venture
to Spanish officials, asking for land to build a colony.
•
The Spanish agreed, eager to settle more land. When Moses Austin died,
his son Stephen F. Austin carried out his plans.
•
Austin’s Colony was established in 1823, and in it a small town called
San Felipe de Austin, which was the administrative, commercial, and
social center of the colony.
•
By 1824, 300 families lived around San Felipe, and the colony was home
to about 1,800 people, about 400 of whom were African Americans.
•
During this time, Mexico won independence from Spain, and 30,000
settlers lived in more than a dozen Texas colonies, including many
enslaved African Americans and Tejanos, or Texans of Mexican heritage.
The Texas Revolution
•
•
•
•
The Texas Revolution
In order to settle in Texas,
Americans had to agree to
specific Mexican demands.
– Surrender American citizenship
– Swear allegiance to Mexico
– Adopt Roman Catholicism
– Hold the land for seven years
The Texan settlers wanted
independence from Mexico, which
led to the Texas Revolution.
Stephen F. Austin went to Mexico
with the plan, but Mexican
president Antonio López de
Santa Ana saw independence as
a threat.
Santa Ana suspended some of the
powers of Texas, and in 1836
Texas declared its independence.
The Alamo
• The most famous battle of the
Texas Revolution took place at
the Alamo, a former mission
turned into a military fort.
• A furious Santa Ana personally
led 6,000 soldiers to the Alamo,
demanding surrender, but
Texan commander William
Travis replied with cannon fire.
• After 12 days and nights,
Mexican soldiers stormed the
fort, killing its 200 defenders,
including David “Davy” Crockett.
• Soon after, Texans captured
Santa Ana in the Battle of San
Jacinto, forcing him to
recognize Texas independence.
The battle’s rallying cry was
“Remember the Alamo!”
The Annexation of Texas
• Troubles between Mexico and Texas continued, because Mexicans would
not honor Santa Ana’s forced agreement to Texan independence.
• In Texas’s first election, Sam Houston, who led the Texan victory at
San Jacinto, was elected President of Texas.
• Texans also voted to ask the U.S. to annex, or add, Texas as a state.
• Americans had mixed feelings about annexation
Supporters
• Wanted more American land
• Admired Texans’ fight for
freedom
• Southerners liked that Texas
allowed slavery
Opponents
• Didn’t want America to take
on Texas’s large debt
• Northerners didn’t want
another slave state in the
Union
• Texas remained independent for nine years, until President John Tyler
allowed it to join the Union under certain conditions.
• Texas became a state late in 1845.
The Mexican War
• Believing that Texas was still Mexican territory, Mexico cut diplomatic
relations with America after it annexed Texas.
• James K. Polk, elected as President in 1845, believed in annexation
and wanted even more Mexican territory for the U.S., including New
Mexico and California.
• New Mexico and California had very few American settlers, but the
Mexican government had little presence in these regions.
• Polk sent a messenger to Mexico to purchase these territories, offering
a reduction of Mexico’s debt and up to $30 million in exchange.
• No one in Mexico would meet with Polk’s messenger, John Slidell.
• Slidell, furious, suggested Mexico should be punished, and a boundary
dispute soon after led America to declare war on Mexico in 1846.
• This was the beginning of the Mexican War.
The Republic of California
•
The U.S. used an aggressive strategy to win the war:
– General Stephen Kearny marched west from Kansas to New Mexico
and easily took control by capturing Santa Fe.
– Kearny then went west, hoping to repeat the victory in California.
•
Meanwhile, a group of American rebels in Sonoma, California,
defeated the Mexicans and declared California an independent
republic.
– The rebels made a crude flag for their country with a picture of a bear
on it, and the incident became known as the Bear Flag Revolt.
•
A month later, U.S. forces arrived and took control of California.
•
American forced under General Zachary Taylor captured towns in
northern Mexico.
•
A force under General Winfield Scott took Mexico City.
•
Within months, America had captured New Mexico, California, and
Mexico’s capital, forcing Mexico to meet American demands.
Results of the Mexican War
• The 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo ended the Mexican War
• Under the treaty, Mexico gave up its claim to Texas, as well as to a huge
tract of land that included present-day New Mexico, California, Nevada,
Arizona, Utah, Colorado, and Wyoming.
• This land was known as the Mexican Cession.
• The same year the treaty was signed, gold was discovered in California.
• In return for the territory, America paid Mexico $15 million and dropped its
claim for $3 million in damages.
• In 1853 the Gadsden Purchase clarified the treaty boundary and transferred
more land to the United States.
• Causes and Effects of the Mexican War included
Causes
Effects
• Annexation of Texas
• Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo
• Boundary dispute between U.S.
and Mexico
• Mexican Cession
• Manifest destiny and
expansionism
• Gadsden Purchase
• Debate that lingers to this day
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