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prepared by
Barbara Heard,
Atlantic Cape Community
College
CHAPTER
1
The Human
Body: An
Orientation:
Part A
© Annie Leibovitz/Contact Press Images
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
• Anatomy
– Study of structure
• Subdivisions:
– Gross or macroscopic (e.g., regional,
systemic, and surface anatomy)
– Microscopic (e.g., cytology and histology)
– Developmental (e.g., embryology)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
• To study anatomy
– Mastery of anatomical terminology
– Observation
– Manipulation
– Palpation
– Auscultation
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
• Physiology
– Study of the function of the body
– Subdivisions based on organ systems
(e.g., renal or cardiovascular physiology)
– Often focuses on cellular and molecular level
• Body's abilities depend on chemical reactions in
individual cells
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Overview of Anatomy and Physiology
• To study physiology
– Ability to focus at many levels (from systemic
to cellular and molecular)
– Study of basic physical principles (e.g.,
electrical currents, pressure, and movement)
– Study of basic chemical principles
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Principle of Complementarity
• Anatomy and physiology are inseparable
– Function always reflects structure
– What a structure can do depends on its
specific form
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Levels of Structural Organization
• Chemical
– Atoms and molecules (chapter 2); and organelles (chapter 3)
• Cellular
– Cells (chapter 3)
• Tissue
– Groups of similar cells (chapter 4)
• Organ
– Contains two or more types of tissues
• Organ System
– Organs that work closely together
• Organismal
– All organ systems
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.
Atoms
Slide 1
Organelle
Smooth muscle cell
Molecule
Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules.
Cellular level
Cells are made up
of molecules.
Cardiovascular
system
Heart
Blood
vessels
Smooth muscle tissue
Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of cells.
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Epithelial
tissue
Organ level
Organs are made up of different types
of tissues.
Organ system level
Organismal level
The human organism is made Organ systems consist of different
organs that work together closely.
up of many organ systems.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.
Atoms
Molecule
Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Slide 2
Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.
Atoms
Molecule
Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Slide 3
Organelle
Smooth muscle cell
Cellular level
Cells are made up
of molecules.
Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.
Atoms
Molecule
Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules.
Slide 4
Organelle
Smooth muscle cell
Cellular level
Cells are made up
of molecules.
Smooth muscle tissue
Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of cells.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.
Atoms
Molecule
Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules.
Slide 5
Organelle
Smooth muscle cell
Cellular level
Cells are made up
of molecules.
Smooth muscle tissue
Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of cells.
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Epithelial
tissue
Organ level
Organs are made up of different types
of tissues.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.
Atoms
Slide 6
Organelle
Smooth muscle cell
Molecule
Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules.
Cellular level
Cells are made up
of molecules.
Cardiovascular
system
Heart
Blood
vessels
Smooth muscle tissue
Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of cells.
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Epithelial
tissue
Organ level
Organs are made up of different types
of tissues.
Organ system level
Organ systems consist of different
organs that work together closely.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.1 Levels of structural organization.
Atoms
Slide 7
Organelle
Smooth muscle cell
Molecule
Chemical level
Atoms combine to
form molecules.
Cellular level
Cells are made up
of molecules.
Cardiovascular
system
Heart
Blood
vessels
Smooth muscle tissue
Tissue level
Tissues consist of
similar types of cells.
Blood vessel (organ)
Smooth muscle tissue
Connective tissue
Epithelial
tissue
Organ level
Organs are made up of different types
of tissues.
Organ system level
Organismal level
The human organism is made Organ systems consist of different
organs that work together closely.
up of many organ systems.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
• What are the bodily functions that MUST
occur in order to maintain life?
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Necessary Life Functions
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Maintaining boundaries
Movement
Responsiveness
Digestion
Metabolism
Dispose of wastes
Reproduction
Growth
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Necessary Life Functions
• Maintaining boundaries between internal
and external environments
– Plasma membranes
– Skin
• Movement (contractility)
– Of body parts (skeletal muscle)
– Of substances (cardiac and smooth muscle)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Necessary Life Functions
• Responsiveness
– Ability to sense and respond to stimuli
– Withdrawal reflex
– Control of breathing rate
• Digestion
– Breakdown of ingested foodstuffs
– Absorption of simple molecules into blood
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Necessary Life Functions
• Metabolism
– All chemical reactions that occur in body cells
– Catabolism and anabolism
• Excretion
– Removal of wastes from metabolism and
digestion
– Urea, carbon dioxide, feces
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Necessary Life Functions
• Reproduction
– Cellular division for growth or repair
– Production of offspring
• Growth
– Increase in size of a body part or of organism
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Interdependence of Body Cells
• Humans are multicellular
– To function, must keep individual cells alive
– All cells depend on organ systems to meet
their survival needs
• All body functions spread among different
organ systems
• Organ systems cooperate to maintain life
– Note major organs and functions of the 11
organ systems (fig. 1.3)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.2 Examples of interrelationships among body organ systems.
Digestive system
Respiratory system
Takes in oxygen and
eliminates carbon dioxide
Takes in nutrients, breaks them
down, and eliminates unabsorbed
matter (feces)
O2
Food
CO2
Cardiovascular system
Via the blood, distributes oxygen
and nutrients to all body cells and
delivers wastes and carbon
dioxide to disposal organs
Blood
CO2
O2
Heart
Nutrients
Interstitial fluid
Urinary system
Eliminates
nitrogenous
wastes and
excess ions
Nutrients and wastes pass
between blood and cells
via the interstitial fluid
Feces
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Integumentary system
Protects the body as a whole
from the external environment
Urine
Figure 1.3a The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Hair
Skin
Nails
Integumentary System
Forms the external body covering,
and protects deeper tissues from injury.
Synthesizes vitamin D, and houses
cutaneous (pain, pressure, etc.)
receptors and sweat and oil glands.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3b The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Bones
Joint
Skeletal System
Protects and supports body organs,
and provides a framework the muscles
use to cause movement. Blood cells
are formed within bones. Bones store
minerals.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3c The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Skeletal
muscles
(c) Muscular System
Allows manipulation of the environment,
locomotion, and facial expression.
Maintains posture, and produces heat.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3d The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Brain
Spinal
cord
Nerves
Nervous System
As the fast-acting control system of
the body, it responds to internal and
external changes by activating
appropriate muscles and glands.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3e The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Pineal gland
Pituitary
gland
Thyroid
gland
Thymus
Adrenal
gland
Pancreas
Testis
Ovary
Endocrine System
Glands secrete hormones that
regulate processes such as growth,
reproduction, and nutrient use
(metabolism) by body cells.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3f The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Heart
Blood
vessels
Cardiovascular System
Blood vessels transport blood,
which carries oxygen, carbon dioxide,
nutrients, wastes, etc. The heart
pumps blood.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3g The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Red bone
marrow
Thymus
Lymphatic
vessels
Thoracic
duct
Spleen
Lymph nodes
Lymphatic System/Immunity
Picks up fluid leaked from blood vessels
and returns it to blood. Disposes
of debris in the lymphatic stream.
Houses white blood cells (lymphocytes)
involved in immunity. The immune
response mounts the attack against
foreign substances within the body.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3h The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Nasal
cavity
Pharynx
Larynx
Bronchus
Trachea
Lung
Respiratory System
Keeps blood constantly supplied with
oxygen and removes carbon dioxide.
The gaseous exchanges occur through
the walls of the air sacs of the lungs.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3i The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Oral cavity
Esophagus
Liver
Stomach
Small
Intestine
Large
Intestine
Rectum
Anus
Digestive System
Breaks down food into absorbable units
that enter the blood for distribution to
body cells. Indigestible foodstuffs are
eliminated as feces.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3j The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Kidney
Ureter
Urinary
bladder
Urethra
Urinary System
Eliminates nitrogenous wastes from the
body. Regulates water, electrolyte and
acid-base balance of the blood.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.3k–l The body’s organ systems and their major functions.
Mammary
glands (in
breasts)
Prostate
gland
Ovary
Penis
Testis
Scrotum
Ductus
deferens
Uterus
Vagina
Male Reproductive System
Overall function is production of offspring. Testes
produce sperm and male sex hormone, and male
ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the
female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs
and female sex hormones. The remaining female
structures serve as sites for fertilization and
development of the fetus. Mammary glands of
female breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Uterine
tube
Female Reproductive System
Overall function is production of offspring. Testes
produce sperm and male sex hormone, and male
ducts and glands aid in delivery of sperm to the
female reproductive tract. Ovaries produce eggs
and female sex hormones. The remaining female
structures serve as sites for fertilization and
development of the fetus. Mammary glands of female
breasts produce milk to nourish the newborn.
Survival Needs
• Appropriate amounts necessary for life
– Too little or too much harmful
•
•
•
•
•
Nutrients
Oxygen
Water
Normal body temperature
Appropriate atmospheric pressure
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Survival Needs
• Nutrients
– Chemicals for energy and cell building
– Carbohydrates, fats, proteins, minerals,
vitamins
• Oxygen
– Essential for energy release (ATP production)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Survival Needs
• Water
– Most abundant chemical in body
– Environment of chemical reactions
– Fluid base for secretions and excretions
• Normal body temperature
– 37° C
– Affects rate of chemical reactions
• Appropriate atmospheric pressure
– For adequate breathing and gas exchange in
lungs
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Homeostasis
• Homeostasis
– Maintenance of relatively stable internal
conditions despite continuous changes in
environment
– A dynamic state of equilibrium
– Maintained by contributions of all organ
systems
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Homeostatic Control Mechanisms
• Involve continuous monitoring and
regulation of all factors that can change
(variables)
• Communication necessary for monitoring
and regulation
– Functions of nervous and endocrine systems
• Nervous and endocrine systems
accomplish communication via nerve
impulses and hormones
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Components of a Control Mechanism
• Receptor (sensor)
– Monitors environment
– Responds to stimuli (something that causes changes in
controlled variables)
• Control center
– Determines set point at which variable is maintained
– Receives input from receptor
– Determines appropriate response
• Effector
– Receives output from control center
– Provides the means to respond
– Response either reduces (negative feedback) or enhances
stimulus (positive feedback)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain
stable internal conditions.
3 Input: Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.
2 Receptor
detects
change.
1 Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Receptor
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
BALANCE
Slide 1
4 Output: Information sent
along efferent pathway to
effector.
Effector
5 Response
of effector
feeds back to
reduce the
effect of
stimulus and
returns
variable
to homeostatic
level.
Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain
stable internal conditions.
1 Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
BALANCE
Slide 2
Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain
stable internal conditions.
2 Receptor
detects
change.
1 Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Receptor
BALANCE
Slide 3
Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain
stable internal conditions.
3 Input: Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.
2 Receptor
detects
change.
1 Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Receptor
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
BALANCE
Slide 4
Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain
stable internal conditions.
3 Input: Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.
2 Receptor
detects
change.
1 Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Receptor
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
BALANCE
Slide 5
4 Output: Information sent
along efferent pathway to
effector.
Effector
Figure 1.4 Interactions among the elements of a homeostatic control system maintain
stable internal conditions.
3 Input: Information
sent along afferent
pathway to control
center.
2 Receptor
detects
change.
1 Stimulus
produces
change in
variable.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Receptor
Control
Center
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
BALANCE
Slide 6
4 Output: Information sent
along efferent pathway to
effector.
Effector
5 Response
of effector
feeds back to
reduce the
effect of
stimulus and
returns
variable
to homeostatic
level.
Negative Feedback
• Most feedback mechanisms in body
• Response reduces or shuts off original
stimulus
– Variable changes in opposite direction of
initial change
• Examples
– Regulation of body temperature (a nervous
system mechanism)
– Regulation of blood glucose by insulin (an
endocrine system mechanism)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.5 Body temperature is regulated by a negative feedback mechanism.
Control Center
(thermoregulatory
center in brain)
Afferent
pathway
Efferent
pathway
Receptors
Effectors
Sweet glands
Temperature-sensitive
cells in skin and brain)
Sweat glands activated
Response
Evaporation of sweat
Body temperature falls;
stimulus ends
Body temperature
rises
BALANCE
Stimulus: Heat
Stimulus: Cold
Response
Body temperature
falls
Body temperature rises;
stimulus ends
Receptors
Temperature-sensitive
cells in skin and brain
Effectors
Skeletal muscles
Shivering begins
Efferent
pathway
Afferent
pathway
Control Center
(thermoregulatory
center in brain)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Negative Feedback:
Regulation of Blood Glucose by Insulin
• Receptors sense increased blood glucose
(blood sugar)
• Pancreas (control center) secretes insulin
into the blood
• Insulin causes body cells (effectors) to
absorb more glucose, which decreases
blood glucose levels
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Positive Feedback
• Response enhances or exaggerates
original stimulus
• May exhibit a cascade or amplifying effect
• Usually controls infrequent events that do
not require continuous adjustment
– Enhancement of labor contractions by
oxytocin (chapter 28)
– Platelet plug formation and blood clotting
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.
1 Break or tear
occurs in blood
vessel wall.
Positive feedback
cycle is initiated.
3 Released
chemicals
attract more
platelets.
2 Platelets
Positive
feedback
loop
adhere to site and
release chemicals.
Feedback cycle ends
when plug is formed.
4 Platelet plug
is fully formed.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Slide 1
Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.
1 Break or tear
occurs in blood
vessel wall.
Positive feedback
cycle is initiated.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Slide 2
Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.
1 Break or tear
occurs in blood
vessel wall.
Positive feedback
cycle is initiated.
2 Platelets
adhere to site and
release chemicals.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Slide 3
Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.
1 Break or tear
occurs in blood
vessel wall.
Positive feedback
cycle is initiated.
3 Released
chemicals
attract more
platelets.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
2 Platelets
Positive
feedback
loop
adhere to site and
release chemicals.
Slide 4
Figure 1.6 A positive feedback mechanism regulates formation of a platelet plug.
1 Break or tear
occurs in blood
vessel wall.
Positive feedback
cycle is initiated.
3 Released
chemicals
attract more
platelets.
2 Platelets
Positive
feedback
loop
adhere to site and
release chemicals.
Feedback cycle ends
when plug is formed.
4 Platelet plug
is fully formed.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Slide 5
Homeostatic Imbalance
• Disturbance of homeostasis
– Increases risk of disease
– Contributes to changes associated with aging
• Control systems less efficient
– If negative feedback mechanisms
overwhelmed
• Destructive positive feedback mechanisms may
take over (e.g., heart failure)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Anatomical Position
• Standard anatomical body position
– Body erect
– Feet slightly apart
– Palms facing forward
• Thumbs point away from body
• Always use directional terms as if body is
in anatomical position
• Right and left refer to body being viewed,
not those of observer
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.7a Regional terms used to designate specific body areas.
Cephalic
Frontal
Orbital
Nasal
Oral
Mental
Cervical
Upper limb
Acromial
Brachial (arm)
Antecubital
Thoracic
Sternal
Axillary
Mammary
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Carpal (wrist)
Abdominal
Umbilical
Manus (hand)
Pollex
Pelvic
Inguinal
(groin)
Palmar
Digital
Lower limb
Coxal (hip)
Femoral (thigh)
Patellar
Pubic (genital)
Crural (leg)
Fibular or peroneal
Pedal (foot)
Tarsal (ankle)
Thorax
Abdomen
Back (Dorsum)
Metatarsal
Digital
Hallux
Anterior/Ventral
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms (1 of 3)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms (2 of 3)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Table 1.1 Orientation and Directional Terms (3 of 3)
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Directional Terms
Superior
Cranial
Proximal
Posterior or
dorsal
(Away from midline)
Lateral
Medial
(Toward or at midline)
Caudal
Proximal
Distal
Distal
Inferior
Anterior or
ventral
• Superficial
– Toward or at the
body surface
Superficial
• Deep
– More internal
– Away from body’s
Deep
surface
Directional Term Practice
• The forehead is __________ to the nose.
• The forehead is superior to the nose.
Directional Term Practice
• The naval is ________ to the breastbone.
Directional Term Practice
• The naval is inferior to the breastbone.
Directional Term Practice
• The knee is _____________ to the thigh.
Directional Term Practice
• The knee is distal to the thigh.
Directional Term Practice
• The arms are ____________ to the chest.
Directional Term Practice
• The arms are lateral to the chest.
Directional Term Practice
• The breastbone is ________ to the spine.
Directional Term Practice
• The breastbone is anterior (ventral) to the
spine.
Directional Term Practice
• The heart is ___________ to the arm.
Directional Term Practice
• The heart is medial to the arm.
Directional Term Practice
• The lungs are ________ to the rib cage.
Directional Term Practice
• The lungs are deep to the rib cage.
Directional Term Practice
• The elbow is __________ to the wrist.
Directional Term Practice
• The elbow is proximal to the wrist.
Directional Term Practice
• The skin is ________ to the skeleton.
Directional Term Practice
• The skin is superficial to the skeleton.
Regional Terms
• Two major divisions of body
– Axial
• Head, neck, and trunk
– Appendicular
• Limbs
• Regional terms designate specific areas
within body divisions
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.7a Regional terms used to designate specific body areas.
Cephalic
Frontal
Orbital
Nasal
Oral
Mental
Cervical
Upper limb
Acromial
Brachial (arm)
Antecubital
Thoracic
Sternal
Axillary
Mammary
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Carpal (wrist)
Abdominal
Umbilical
Manus (hand)
Pollex
Pelvic
Inguinal
(groin)
Palmar
Digital
Lower limb
Coxal (hip)
Femoral (thigh)
Patellar
Pubic (genital)
Crural (leg)
Fibular or peroneal
Pedal (foot)
Tarsal (ankle)
Thorax
Abdomen
Back (Dorsum)
Metatarsal
Digital
Hallux
Anterior/Ventral
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.7b Regional terms used to designate specific body areas.
Cephalic
Otic
Occipital (back
of head)
Upper limb
Acromial
Brachial (arm)
Cervical
Olecranal
Antebrachial
(forearm)
Back (dorsal)
Scapular
Vertebral
Lumbar
Manus (hand)
Sacral
Metacarpal
Gluteal
Digital
Perineal (between
anus and external
genitalia)
Lower limb
Femoral (thigh)
Popliteal
Sural (calf)
Fibular or peroneal
Pedal (foot)
Calcaneal
Back (Dorsum)
Plantar
Posterior/Dorsal
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Anatomical Variability
• Humans differ externally and internally
– 90% of all structures present in body match
description in textbook
– Nerve or blood vessel may be out of place
– Small muscle may be missing
• Extreme variations inconsistent with life
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Body Planes and Sections
• Body plane
– Flat surface along which body or structure
may be cut for anatomical study
• Sections
– Cuts or sections made along a body plane
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Body Planes
• Three most common
– Lie at right angles to each other
– Sagittal plane
– Frontal (coronal) plane
– Transverse (horizontal) plane
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Sagittal Plane
• Sagittal plane
– Divides body vertically into right and left parts
– Produces a sagittal section if cut along this
plane
– Midsagittal (median) plane
• Lies on midline
– Parasagittal plane
• Not on midline
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Body Planes
• Frontal (coronal) plane
– Divides body vertically into anterior and posterior
parts
– Produces a frontal or coronal section
• Transverse (horizontal) plane
– Divides body horizontally (90° to vertical plane)
into superior and inferior parts
– Produces a cross section
• Oblique section
– Result of cuts at angle other than 90° to vertical
plane
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.8 Planes of the body with corresponding magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans.
Frontal plane
Median (midsagittal) plane
Transverse plane
Frontal section
(through torso)
Transverse section
(through torso,
inferior view)
Pancreas
Median section
(midsagittal)
Aorta
Spleen
Arm
Left and Liver Heart
right lungs
Stomach
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Liver Spinal cord
Subcutaneous fat layer
Body wall Rectum
Intestines
Vertebral column
Body Cavities
• Two sets of internal body cavities
– Closed to environment
• Provide different degrees of protection to
organs
• Dorsal body cavity
• Ventral body cavity
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Dorsal Body Cavity
• Protects nervous system
• Two subdivisions:
– Cranial cavity
• Encases brain
– Vertebral cavity
• Encases spinal cord
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 1.9 Dorsal and ventral body cavities and their subdivisions.
Cranial
cavity
Cranial cavity
(contains brain)
Vertebral
cavity
Dorsal
body
cavity
Thoracic
cavity
(contains
heart and
lungs)
Vertebral cavity
(contains spinal
cord)
Pleural
cavity
Pericardial
cavity within
the mediastinum
Diaphragm
Abdominal cavity
(contains digestive
viscera)
Abdominopelvic
cavity
Pelvic cavity
(contains urinary
bladder, reproductive
organs, and rectum)
Dorsal body cavity
Ventral body cavity
Lateral view
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Superior
mediastinum
Anterior view
Ventral body
cavity
(thoracic and
abdominopelvic
cavities)
Ventral Body Cavity
• Houses internal organs (viscera)
• Two subdivisions (separated by
diaphragm)
– Thoracic cavity
– Abdominopelvic cavity
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Ventral Body Cavity
• Thoracic cavity subdivisions
– Two pleural cavities
• Each surrounds a lung
– Mediastinum
• Contains pericardial cavity
• Surrounds thoracic organs
– Pericardial cavity
• Encloses heart
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Ventral Body Cavity
• Abdominopelvic cavity subdivisions
– Abdominal cavity
• Contains stomach, intestines, spleen, and liver
– Pelvic cavity
• Contains urinary bladder, reproductive organs, and
rectum
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Figure 1.9 Dorsal and ventral body cavities and their subdivisions.
Cranial
cavity
Cranial cavity
(contains brain)
Vertebral
cavity
Dorsal
body
cavity
Thoracic
cavity
(contains
heart and
lungs)
Vertebral cavity
(contains spinal
cord)
Pleural
cavity
Pericardial
cavity within
the mediastinum
Diaphragm
Abdominal cavity
(contains digestive
viscera)
Abdominopelvic
cavity
Pelvic cavity
(contains urinary
bladder, reproductive
organs, and rectum)
Dorsal body cavity
Ventral body cavity
Lateral view
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Superior
mediastinum
Anterior view
Ventral body
cavity
(thoracic and
abdominopelvic
cavities)
Membranes in Ventral Body Cavity
• Serous membrane or serosa
– Thin, double-layered membranes
• Parietal serosa lines internal body cavity walls
• Visceral serosa covers internal organs (viscera)
– Layers separated by slit-like cavity filled with
serous fluid
• Fluid secreted by both layers of membrane
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Serous Membranes
• Named for specific cavity and organs with
which associated
• Each has parietal and visceral layers
• Pericardium
– Heart
• Pleurae
– Lungs
• Peritoneum
– Abdominopelvic cavity
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Figure 1.10 Serous membrane relationships.
Outer balloon wall
(comparable to parietal serosa)
Air (comparable to serous cavity)
Inner balloon wall
(comparable to visceral serosa)
A fist thrust into a flaccid balloon demonstrates
the relationship between the parietal and visceral
serous membrane layers.
Heart
Parietal
pericardium
Pericardial
space with
serous fluid
Visceral
pericardium
The serosae associated with the heart.
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Abdominopelvic Quadrants
• Divisions used primarily by medical
personnel
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Figure 1.11 The four abdominopelvic quadrants.
Right upper
quadrant
(RUQ)
Left upper
quadrant
(LUQ)
Right lower
quadrant
(RLQ)
Left lower
quadrant
(LLQ)
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Abdominopelvic Regions
• Nine divisions used primarily by
anatomists
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Figure 1.12 The nine abdominopelvic regions.
Right
hypochondriac
region
Right
lumbar
region
Right iliac
(inguinal)
region
Epigastric
region
Umbilical
region
Hypogastric
(pubic)
region
Left
hypochondriac
region
Left
lumbar
region
Left iliac
(inguinal)
region
Nine regions delineated by four planes
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Diaphragm
Liver
Spleen
Gallbladder
Stomach
Ascending colon of
large intestine
Transverse colon
of large intestine
Small intestine
Descending colon
of large intestine
Cecum
Appendix
Initial part of
sigmoid colon
Urinary bladder
Anterior view of the nine regions showing the superficial organs
Other Body Cavities
• Exposed to environment
– Oral and digestive cavities
– Nasal cavity
– Orbital cavities
– Middle ear cavities
• Not exposed to environment
– Synovial cavities
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