Download Zimb_AP_Ch08

Chapter 8
Emotion and Motivation
This multimedia product and its contents are protected under copyright law. The following are prohibited by law:
•Any public performance or display, including transmission of any image over a network;
•Preparation of any derivative work, including the extraction, in whole or in part, of any images
•Any rental, lease or lending of the program.
•
ISBN: 0-131-73180-7
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
What Is Emotion?
Emotion –
A four-part process consisting of
1=physiological arousal, 2=cognitive
interpretation, 3=subjective feelings, and
4=behavioral expression
These are aspects of emotion that interact with
each other; they don’t necessarily function in
that order
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
What Do Our Emotions
Do For Us?
Emotions have evolved to
help us respond to important
situations and to convey our
intentions to others
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
The Evolution of Emotions
Emotions have survival value and have been shaped by
natural selection…for example fear promotes avoiding
danger, love promotes passing on genetic traits,
jealousy eliminates competition for having offspring
Individuals vary tremendously in emotional
responsiveness
Emotions are not entirely programmed by genetics…there
is a learned aspect to it as well
(nature and nurture interact)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Cultural Universals in Emotional
Expression
People everywhere can recognize at least
seven basic emotions: sadness, fear,
anger, disgust, contempt, happiness and
surprise
There are, however, huge cultural
differences in the context and intensity of
emotional displays
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Cultural Universals in Emotional
Expression
Display rules –
Permissible ways of displaying emotions
in a particular society; what emotions can
you show? What can’t you? What’s
allowed? What isn’t?
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
How many emotions are there?
Paul Ekman and his colleagues claim that people everywhere can
recognize at least seven basic emotions:
Sadness
Fear
Anger
Disgust
Contempt
Happiness
Surprise
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
The Emotion Wheel—Robert Plutchik
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Emotional differences between men and
women depend on culture
Gender stereotypes dictate that men and boys
receive reinforcement for displays of
dominance, anger, and aggressive behavior
They may be punished for displays of weakness,
crying, depression, sadness—the opposite is
true for girls and women
We cannot conclude that one sex has more
emotional intensity than the other
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Where Do Our Emotions
Come From?
The discovery of two distinct
brain pathways for emotional
arousal has clarified the
connections among the many
biological structures involved
in emotion and has offered
solutions to many of the longstanding issues in the
psychology of emotion
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
The Neuroscience of Emotion
The biological mechanisms at work behind
our emotions include:
•
•
•
•
•
The limbic system
The reticular formation
The cerebral cortex
The autonomic nervous system
Hormones
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Emotion Processing—fast-response
It operates at a mainly unconscious level
It is linked to the implicit memory system
It can act as an early warning defense
This system learns responses through
classical conditioning very easily
Example: hearing a loud noise in the
middle of the night
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Emotion processing—slow response
This is linked to our explicit memory
It generates emotion more slowly than the
other pathway, but the information it puts
together is more complete
Example: growing tension in your body in
preparation for giving a speech
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Role of different brain structures…
Amygdala: it receives messages from both the
quick and slow pathways
Reticular formation: arouses the brain, makes
heart accelerate, respiration increase, mouth
get dry, muscles tense
Cerebral cortex: interprets situations and
connects them to memories/feelings
Lateralization of emotion: right hemisphere of
brain specializes in negative emotions, while
the left processes more positive emotions
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Psychological Theories of Emotion
James-Lange theory–
An emotion-provoking stimulus produces
a physical response that, in turn,
produces an emotion
Cannon-bard theory –
An emotional feeling and an internal
physiological response occur at the same
time
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Psychological Theories of Emotion
continued…
Schacter’s Two-factor theory of emotion –
Emotion results from the cognitive
appraisal of both (1) physical arousal and
(2) emotion provoking stimulus
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
JamesLange
theory
Cannonbard
theory
Twofactor
theory
Stimulus
snake
Stimulus
snake
Stimulus
snake
Physiological arousal
trembling
increased heart rate
Emotion
fear
Physiological arousal
trembling
increased heart rate
Emotion
fear
Physiological arousal
trembling
increased heart rate
Cognitive interpretation
of situation
Emotion
fear
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Psychological Theories of Emotion
Cognitive appraisal theory –
Theory that individuals decide on an
appropriate emotion following the event
Opponent-process theory –
Theory that emotions have pairs; when
one is triggered the other is suppressed
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Arousal, Performance, and the
Inverted “U”
Inverted “U” function –
Describes the relationship between
arousal and performance; both low and
high levels of arousal produce lower
performance than does a moderate level
of arousal
High
Performance
Low
Low
High
Arousal Level
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Arousal, Performance, and the
Inverted “U”
Sensation seekers –
Individuals who have a biological need
for higher levels of stimulation than do
other people…this might involve the
brain’s dopamine pathways, which
usually are associated with “reward”
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
How Much Control Do We
Have Over Our Emotions?
Although emotional
responses are not always
consciously regulated, we
can learn to control them
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Developing Emotional Intelligence
Emotional intelligence –
Ability to understand and control
emotional responses
Example: Daniel Goldman’s marshmallow
test
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Detecting Deception
People can learn to control their emotions
to deceive others
Polygraph –
Device that records the graphs of many
measures of physical arousal; often
called a “lie detector”– it’s really an
arousal detector—with a significant
margin of error
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Motivation: What Makes Us
Act as We Do?
Motivation takes many
forms, but all involve inferred
mental processes that select
and direct our behavior
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Motivation: What Makes Us
Act as We Do?
Motivation –
All processes involved in starting,
directing, and maintaining physical and
psychological activities
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
How Psychologists Use the Concept
of Motivation
Motivation
• Connects observable behavior to internal
states
• Accounts for variability in behavior
• Explains perseverance despite adversity
• Relates biology to behavior
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Types of Motivation
Drive –
Biologically instigated motivation
Motive –
Internal mechanism that directs behavior
(often used to describe motivations that
are learned, rather that biologically
based)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Types of Motivation
Intrinsic motivation –
Desire to engage in an activity for
its own sake
Extrinsic motivation –
Desire to engage in an activity to
achieve an external consequence
(e.g. a reward)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Types of Motivation
Conscious motivation –
Having the desire to engage in an
activity and being aware of the
desire
Unconscious motivation –
Having a desire to engage in an
activity but being consciously
unaware of the desire
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Theories of Motivation
Instinct theory –
View that certain behaviors are
determined by innate factors
Fixed-action patterns –
Genetically based behaviors, seen across a
species, that can be set off by a specific
stimulus
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Theories of Motivation
Instinct theory – outdated view that certain
behaviors are completely determined by innate factors
(fixed-action patterns—species-specific and triggered by
stimuli)…this is the more modern and accepted view
Drive theory –
View that a biological need (an imbalance that
threatens survival) produces drive…drive reduction
Homeostasis –
The body’s tendency to maintain a biologically balanced
condition
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Theories of Motivation
Cognitive theory:
Locus of control –
An individual’s sense of where his or her life influences
originate–internally or externally…Julian Rotter
Psychodynamic theory (Freud):
Motivation comes from the id (eros=the desire for sex +
thanatos=the desire to destroy)
As we grow older these urges are masked in our activities
and become less conscious
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Maslow’s Humanistic Theory
Hierarchy of needs –
The notion that needs
occur in priority order,
with the biological
needs as the most
basic
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Rewards Can Sometimes Squelch
Motivation
Overjustification –
The process by which extrinsic rewards can
sometimes displace internal motivation, as
when a child receives money for playing video
games…this is especially true if the reward is
given regardless of how well the person does
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
How Are Achievement,
Hunger, and Sex Alike?
Different?
No single theory accounts
for all forms of motivation,
because each motive
involves its own mix of
biological, mental,
behavioral, and
social/cultural influences
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Measuring the Need for Achievement
Projection –
Process by which people attribute their own
unconscious motives to other people or
objects; this is the basis for the Thematic
Apperception Test (TAT)
Need for achievement (n Ach) –
Mental state that produces a psychological
motive to excel or reach some goal…some
results for those with high n Ach: higher
grades, more competitive, leaders,
persistence, etc.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
A Cross-Cultural Perspective on
Achievement
Individualism –
View that places a high value on
individual achievement and distinction
(US, Canada, Britain, Western Europe)
Collectivism –
View that values group loyalty and pride
over individual distinction (Latin America,
Asia, Africa, Middle East)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Hunger Motivation
The multiple-systems approach to hunger:
psychologists use this approach since
hunger is now seen as more complex
than once thought to be…
Weight control is a complex
issue with no simple answers !
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Multiple-Systems Approach to Hunger
continued…
• Receptors in the brain monitor sugar and fat levels in
the blood, sending signals to the lateral hypothalamus
• An internal “scale” weighs the fat stores in the body
and lets the CNS know the results. The goal is the Set
point –
(Refers to the tendency of the body to maintain a
certain level of body fat and body weight)
• Pressure detectors in the stomach signal fullness or
emptiness
• Other mechanisms give us the preference for sweet
and high-fat foods
• Moderate exercise suppresses hunger; extreme
exercise provokes it
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
More about hunger…
• Culture can affect hunger
• Situations can affect hunger
• Emotions can affect hunger
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Eating disorders
If a person weighs less than 85% of the desirable
weight and still worries about being fat, the
likely diagnosis is anorexia nervosa. The
condition may also be accompanied by bulimia
nervosa (binge eating and then purging
through fasting, vomiting, or laxatives). This is
more common in females than males in the
US. It has the highest mortality rate of any
recognized mental disorder.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Thirst and Pain
Volumetric thirst –
A drop in extracellular (outside of cells) fluid
levels
Osmotic thirst –
A drop in intracellular (inside of cells) fluid
levels through sweat, urine, feces, mucus, or
moisture in breath
Pain is usually the opposite: it is a drive to avoid
or remove it, rather than seek it
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
The Scientific Study of Sexuality
Sexual motivation: it’s for the survival of the
species, not the individual. It is not a
homeostatic drive
Alfred Kinsey interviewed 17,000 Americans
concerning their sexual behavior…no one else
has interviewed such a wide and varied
sample.
William Masters and Virginia Johnson
Sexual response cycle –
Four-stage sequence of arousal, plateau, orgasm,
and resolution occurring in both men and women
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Phases of Human Sexual
Response
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Sexual Motivation
The brain is the major sex organ.
Virtually any stimulus that becomes associated
with genital touch and orgasm can become a
conditioned stimulus that motivates sexual
activity
Sexual scripts –
Socially learned ways of responding in sexual
situations
Both learning and genetics affect our sexual
behaviors
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
The Origins of Sexual Orientation
Sexual orientation –
One’s erotic attraction toward members
of the same sex, the opposite sex, or
both sexes
Research has yielded many conflicting
results as to nature vs. nurture in this
field of study; nothing is conclusive as of
yet
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Motives in Conflict
Approach-approach conflict –
A conflict in which one must choose
between two equally attractive options
Approach-avoidance conflict –
A conflict in which there are both
appealing and negative aspects to the
decision to be made
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Motives in Conflict
Avoidance-avoidance conflict –
A conflict in which one must choose
between two equally unattractive options
Multiple approach-avoidance conflict –
A conflict in which one must choose
between options that have both many
attractive and many negative aspects
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
How and Why Do We
Experience Stress?
The human stress response
to perceived threat activates
thoughts, feelings, behaviors,
and physiological arousal
that normally promote
adaptation and survival
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Stress and Stressors
Stress –
A physical and mental response to a
challenging or threatening situation
Stressor –
a stressful stimulus, a condition
demanding adaptation
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
A Model of Stress
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Traumatic Stressors
Traumatic stressor –
a situation that threatens one’s physical
safety, arousing feelings of fear, horror, or
helplessness
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Catastrophe
Cohen and Ahearn identified five stages
that occur in the wake of natural
disasters…
•
•
•
•
•
Psychic numbness (shock and confusion)
Automatic action (low awareness/recall)
Communal effort (pooling resources)
Letdown (feeling the tragedy’s effect)
Recovery (adapting to changes)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Posttraumatic Stress
Posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD)–
delayed stress reaction in which an
individual involuntarily re-experiences
emotional, cognitive, and behavioral
aspects of past trauma…this manifests
itself as numbness, distraction,
disorganization, memory difficulties,
alienation, “startle response,” anger, fear
of being alone, etc.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
The Physical Stress Response
Acute stress –
A temporary pattern of arousal caused by
a stressor with a clear onset and offset
Chronic stress –
A continuous state of stressful arousal
persisting over time
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
The Physical Stress Response
Fight-or-flight response –
A sequence of internal processes that prepares
the organism for struggle or escape…the
amygdala and hypothalamus initiate a
response of the ANS
Tend-and-befriend model –
stress response model proposing that females
are biologically predisposed to respond to
stress by nurturing and protecting offspring and
seeking social support
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
The Physical Stress Response
General adaptation syndrome (GAS) –
A pattern of general physical responses
that takes essentially the same form in
responding to any serious chronic
stressor
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
The General Adaptation Syndrome
Alarm
reaction
Resistance
– the body
– the body seems to adapt
mobilizes it’s
to the
resources to
presence of
cope with a
the stressor
stressor
Level of
normal resistance
Alarm Reaction
Exhaustion
– the body
depletes it’s
resources
Successful Resistance
Illness/death
Resistance
Exhaustion
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Stress and the Immune System
Immune system –
bodily organs and responses that protect
the body from foreign substances and
threats
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Stress and the Immune System
Psychoneuroimmunology –
Multidisciplinary field that studies the
influence of mental states on the immune
system
Cytokines –
Hormone-like chemicals facilitating
communication between brain and
immune system
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Personality and Stress
Type A –
behavior pattern characterized by
intense, angry, competitive, or
perfectionistic responses to challenging
situations
Type B –
behavior pattern characterized
by a relaxed, unstressed
approach to life
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Psychological Responses to Stress
Learned helplessness Martin Seligman –
Pattern of not responding to noxious
stimuli after an organism learns that its
behavior has no effect (this was
demonstrated by experimenting on dogs
with electric shocks)
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Psychological Responses to Stress
Resilience –
Capacity to adapt, achieve well-being,
and cope with stress, in spite of serious
threats to development
It helps to: feel in control, communicate
effectively, set realistic goals, learn from
success/failure, feel empathy toward
others, feel special but not self-centered
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
Motivating Yourself
Flow –
An intense focus on an activity,
accompanied by increased creativity and
near-ecstatic feelings
Involves intrinsic motivation and is related to
n Ach
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007
End of Chapter 8
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2007