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Human Sexuality: 2 Studying Human Sexuality Survey says… In the survey method for collecting sexual information A. people tend to be poor reporters of their own sexual behavior. B. the interviewers may be biased and subjective. C. the respondents may hesitate to reveal information. D. All of the above. What goes on in other people’s bedrooms? • • • • • What do women really want? Who makes the best lovers? Have you ever lied about your weight? Can you name a researcher who studied sexuality? What could you find out from research in human sexuality? Sex, Advice Columnists, and Pop Psychology • The sex information/advice genre seeks to o o • • Inform: transmit information that is factual and accurate Entertain: attract audiences through hosts’ personalities, as well as high-interest or bizarre material Focuses on “how-to” or morality Uses the trappings of social science and psychiatry, without their substance. Use and Abuse of Statistics • Media frequently quotes or summarizes social science research, but in an oversimplified or distorted manner: o o o Sensationalizes findings Overgeneralizes results of research Promotes statistics that agree with widely-held preconceptions Thinking Critically about Sex Basic to scientific studies is a commitment to objectivity • o o The observation of things as they exist in reality as opposed to researchers’ feelings or beliefs about them Not easy to achieve objectivity in the study of sexuality 1. 2. Sexuality can bring out powerful emotions and moral ambivalence Sex is experienced subjectively Value Judgments vs. Objectivity • Objectivity about sex is challenging for us o o Our culture has traditionally viewed sexuality in moral terms We tend to make value judgments about sex, i.e. evaluations based on moral or ethical standards Value Judgments vs. Objectivity • In sex research, value judgments can be blinders to understanding o o o o Do not tell us what motivates people Do not tell us how frequently people behave in a given way Do not tell us how people feel Only tell us how we ourselves feel Value Judgments vs. Objectivity • • • • Value judgments imply how a person ought to behave Objective statements describe how people actually behave Value judgments cannot be empirically evaluated Objective statements can be empirically evaluated Opinions, Biases, and Stereotypes • Opinions, biases, and stereotypes also interfere with the pursuit of knowledge o o o Opinions are unsubstantiated beliefs or conclusions according to an individual’s personal thoughts Biases are personal leanings or inclinations Stereotypes are sets of overgeneralized beliefs about an individual, a group, an idea, etc. Opinions, Biases, and Stereotypes • Sexual stereotyping is often used to justify discrimination o Targets are usually members of subordinate social groups, such as o o o o Women Poor people African Americans, Latino/as, Asian Americans Gay men, lesbians, bisexuals, transgender people Stereotypes • • Stereotypes structure knowledge. They are a type of schema that organizes our thought process, affecting: o o o o What we see What we notice What we remember How we explain things Confusing Attitudes and Behavior • • • Attitude: a predisposition a person has to act, think, or feel in certain ways Behavior: the way a person acts Frequent discrepancies exist between the two, on individual and cultural levels o Example: someone who disapproves of casual sex, yet engages in it Egocentrism and Ethnocentrism • Fallacy: an error in reasoning that affects our understanding of a subject o o Egocentric fallacy: the belief that our own personal experience & values are generally held by others Ethnocentric fallacy: the belief that one’s own ethnic group, nation, or culture’s values and customs are innately superior to others’ Theory and Research Theories are the intellectual structure (assumptions, principles, methods) for understanding sexuality Research helps answer questions about human sexuality Many disciplines conduct research in sexuality, varying in the questions asked and scientific approaches taken Theories About Sexuality Many theories guide our thoughts about human sexuality Most theorists utilize multiple perspectives Psychoanalytic Theory Freud (1856-1939) Most influential psychological theory of sexuality Sex drive is a very important life force Two controversial concepts: Personality formation Psychosexual development Behavioral Theory Only study overt behavior; ignore internal states Operant conditioning (Skinner) reinforcement punishment Behavior modification – tool to change unwanted behavior Aversion therapy Social Learning Theory Bandura Basis in operant conditioning Also consider internal events in affecting behavior Identification and imitation of same-sex parent in development of our gender identity Peer pressure influence on our sexuality Cognitive Theory Individual differences in processing information Behavior is a result of our perceptions and conceptualizations of our environment Largest sex organ – the brain We are sexually aroused by what we think is sexually arousing Humanistic Theory Self-actualization – we try to be the best we can become Unconditional positive regard allows us to become self-actualized Biological Theory Our sexuality is controlled by our physiology, genetics Sexual problems due to physiological causes; interventions include medications or surgery Evolutionary Theory Combination of evolution and sociology Sexuality serves mainly to reproduce Primary goal is to pass on one’s genes Consider mater preferences from an evolutionary perspective Sociological Theory Sexual expression varies across societies Institutions influence rules societies hold regarding the expression of sexuality Family Religion Economy Medicine Law Feminist Theory Sexology is dominated by white, middleclass, heterosexist attitudes Sexuality research is based on male sexuality Social construction of sexuality based on power, historically held by men Women as passive and submissive Sexuality used by men to maintain power over women Queer Theory Heterosexism and homophobia should be resisted Heterosexism is not the norm, with all else deviant Sexual categories are cultural constructions that limit and restrain Sex Research Methods • Scientific Method: the method by which a hypothesis is formed from impartially gathered data and tested empirically. o o Induction: drawing a general conclusion from specific facts Seeks to describe the world rather than evaluate or judge it Research Concerns • Ethical o • Concerns center on use of human beings as subjects of research Methodological o o Concerns center on information-gathering techniques and accuracy A representative sample of people is necessary to draw accurate conclusions Ethical Issues • Informed consent • • Protection from harm • • Full disclosure of purpose, risk, benefits Includes anonymity Use of deception • • Some experiments involve deceiving subjects Researcher debriefs subject afterwards to reveal deception Sampling • Sample: a portion of a larger group of people observed or studied • Useful samples are: • • Random Representative • • Reflect the larger group in terms of age, sex, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, etc. An unrepresentative sample is called a “biased sample.” Limitations of Samples • Most samples in sex research are limited • • They depend on volunteers or clients Research takes place at universities or colleges with student volunteers • • • Students not representative of general population Some ethnic groups are underrepresented It is difficult to recruit homosexual and bisexual subjects who have not “come out” Clinical Research • Clinical Research: • • An in-depth examination of an individual or group that comes to a specialist for assistance with disorders and problems (Freud) Limited by an emphasis on pathological (unhealthy or diseased) behavior • Dependent on cultural definitions of what is unhealthy Survey Research • Uses questionnaires or interviews to gather information. • Limitations: • • • (cont.) People do not report their own sexual behavior accurately Interviewers may allow their preconceptions to influence questioning, which biases responses Some respondents may not want to reveal “embarrassing” sexual information in a face-to-face interview Survey Research • Limitations (continued): • • • • Interviewer’s gender can influence disclosure Accuracy of subjects’ memory fades as time passes Difficult for subjects to accurately estimate factors such as how long sexual encounters last New techniques: • • Computer-based interviews Internet questionnaires Observational Research • The researcher unobtrusively observes and makes notes about people’s behavior • • Serious ethical issues in observing sexual behavior without subjects’ knowledge or consent Known observation generally affects behavior Participant Observation • The researcher participates in the behaviors which she or he is studying • • Used frequently by anthropologists In sex research, more controversial • • Snyder studied prostitution by becoming a customer Humphreys studied anonymous sex by men in public bathrooms by becoming a lookout Experimental Research • The systematic manipulation of individuals or the environment to learn the effect of such manipulation on behavior • Can control experiments by using variables • • Independent variables: factors that can be manipulated and changed by the experimenter Dependent variables: factors that are likely to be affected by changes in the independent variable Experimental Research • Correlational studies: • Measure two or more naturally occurring variables to determine their relationship to each other • • Can’t determine which variable causes which Experimental studies • Manipulate the independent variables so researchers can determine which variables cause other variables to change The Sex Researchers • In 19th century, Western sexuality began to be studied from a scientific framework • • Fascinated with “pathologies” of sex: fetishism, sadism, masturbation, homosexuality Since that time, a liberalizing trend in our thinking about sexuality • 20th century researchers viewed sexuality more positively Recent Sexuality Research Late 1980s, early 1990s increase in sexuality research Prompted by HIV/AIDS Primarily “problem-driven” research, not healthy sexuality Pressure from conservative groups Multiple disciplines studying sex has fragmented research Recent Sexuality Research (Cont.) Popular media sensationalizes and distorts information Sexologist – researcher, educator, clinician specializing in sexuality; usually PhD Researchers feel pressure to research select topics and avoid others Academic programs specializing in human sexuality; need steady funding Politics and Sex Research Sexuality research changes with the political climate Changing roles of women, development of birth control pills, and Kinsey’s work led to less acceptance for the double standard HIV/AIDS crisis provided a new opportunity for sex research Political resistance even today The Sex Researchers Three themes evident in later 20th century sex researchers’ work: Belief that sexual expression is essential to an individual’s well being Desire to broaden the range of legitimate sexual activity, including homosexuality Belief that female sexuality is equal of male sexuality Early Promoters of Sexology Bloch (1872-1922): Published the Journal of Sexology beginning 1914 Moll (1862-1939): In 1913, began the International Society for Sex Research; authored sexology books Hirschfeld (1868-1935): Worked to better the treatment of homosexuals and bisexuals; developed an Institute for Sexology Early Promoters of Sexology (Cont.) Krafft-Ebing (1840-1902): Sexual pathology Ellis (1859-1939): Published six-volume work on sexuality; refuted deviance of homosexuality and masturbation All early researchers legitimized the study of sexuality Findings lacked consistency and organization Sexuality Research Moves to the United States Mosher (1863-1940): First to ask Americans about their sexual behavior; helped married women have better sex lives Bement Davis (1861-1935): Prostitution and STIs; homosexuality is not abnormal Katharine Bement Davis (1861 – 1935) conducted some of the largest and most comprehensive sexuality studies to date. Richard von Krafft-Ebing (1840-1902) • Psychopathia Sexualis (1886): • • • A collection of the case histories of fetishists, sadists, masochists, and homosexuals Attributed variations in Victorian sexuality to “hereditary taint,” “moral degeneracy,” and masturbation Brought public attention to sexual behaviors that had never been documented Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), the father of psychoanalysis, set the stage for all other psychological theories. Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) Freud’s writings on sexuality have dramatically impacted Western ideas Believed that sexuality begins at birth, with fivestage development: Oral stage (birth to 1 year) Anal stage (age 1-3) Phallic stage (age 3-5) Latency stage (age 6-puberty) Genital stage (puberty onward) Sigmund Freud (1856-1939) • • Freud was pioneering in commitment to science and explorations of the unconscious His influence among American sex researchers has dwindled • • Criticized for his lack of empiricism and inadequate description of female development In the field of sex research, his work is now primarily of historical interest Havelock Ellis (1859-1939) • Set himself against Victorian repression of sexuality • • One of the first modern affirmers of sexuality Studies in the Psychology of Sex (1897-1910) • • • • • Pointed out the relativity of sexual values Appealed to case studies as well as studies in animal behavior, anthropology, and history Challenged view that masturbation was abnormal Documented existence of women’s sexual desires Reevaluated homosexuality as a congenital condition Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956) implemented the first large-scale survey of adult sexual behavior in the United States. Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956) • “The Kinsey Reports” • • Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948) Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953) • • (cont.) Statistical documentation of American sexual behavior Showed a significant discrepancy between public standards and actual standards of sexual behavior Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956) • Sexual Diversity & Variation • • Extraordinary diversity in behaviors of subjects Reevaluation of Masturbation • Deemed it important for women, harmless, and pleasurable Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956) • Same-Sex Behavior • • • Many subjects (e.g. 50% of men) had had sexual experiences with members of the same-sex Labels of “heterosexual” and “homosexual” are inadequate ways of understanding sexual behavior Devised the “Kinsey Scale,” a continuum to chart the proportion of an individual’s sexual behaviors with same- or other-sex individuals Kinsey’s Scale from 0 to 6 Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956) • Rejection of Normal/Abnormal Dichotomy • • • Sexual differences are a matter of degree, not kind. Became a leading advocate of the toleration of sexual differences Criticisms of Kinsey: • • • Statistical methodology: unrepresentative sampling Emphasis on quantification of sexual behavior Rejection of the psychological dimension (reducing behavior to genital activity) Virginia Johnson and William Masters were the first to bring sexuality into the laboratory. To measure physiological changes during sexual arousal, researches rely on strain gauges and photoplethysmographs. A penile strain gauge is placed on the base of the penis to measure erectile changes in the penis, while a photoplethysmograph is inserted in the vaginal canal to measure changes I vaginal lubrication. Masters & Johnson • Human Sexual Response (1966) • • • Detailed the sexual response cycles of hundreds of male and female research subjects Combined clinical observation with direct measurement of genital arousal using electronic devices Outcomes: • • • Male and female sexual responses are very similar Women achieve orgasm primarily via clitoral stimulation Legitimized female masturbation Masters & Johnson • Human Sexual Inadequacy (1970) • • • Argued that sexual problems were not the result of neuroses or personality disorders Rather, lack of information, poor communication, or relationship conflict contributed Used behavioral therapy to treat sexual problems • Achieved astounding increase in rate of successful treatment Research Studies Homosexuality Few large-scale studies Hooker: Early 1950s; professionals could not differentiate gay and straight males Bell & Weinberg: Homosexualities (1978) majority of homosexual men and women do not conform to stereotypes aren’t sexual predators homosexuals and heterosexuals are similar in intimate relationships Dr. Evelyn Hooker published the first empirical study to challenge the psychiatric view that homosexuality was a mental illness. Her work ultimately led to the removal of homosexuality from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Research Studies Homosexuality The Janus Report (1993): large survey on sexual behavior in the U.S.; sectioned out regions in the U.S.; not a random sample National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS): Laumann, Gagnon, Michael, & Michaels (1994); surveyed a representative sample of the U.S. on sexual behaviors and attitudes Contemporary Research Studies • Several large-scale sexuality related studies have recently been conducted • • • • • • The National Health and Social Life Survey (1994) The Youth Risk Behavior Survey (biannual) The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (annual) The National Survey of Family Growth (periodic) College Alcohol Study (every few years) Community Intervention Trial for Youth Project The National Health & Social Life Survey (1994) • Findings: • • • • Americans are largely monogamous On average, Americans have sex about once a week Adultery is the exception, not the rule Most Americans are fairly “traditional” in the bedroom • Vaginal intercourse ranked as favorite activity The National Health & Social Life Survey (1994) • • Homosexuality less prevalent than originally believed Orgasms appear to be the rule for men and the exception for women • • • Married women more likely to report they “usually” or “always” have orgasms Forced sex and the misperception of it remain critical problems 3% of adult Americans claim never to have had sex The Youth Risk Behavior Survey • Measures health risk behaviors among high school students, including • • Sexual behaviors that contribute to unintended pregnancy, STDs, & HIV 2001 findings include: • • • • 46% report having had sexual intercourse 58% of those students used a condom during their last sexual intercourse 26% of sexually active students report using alcohol or drugs during most recent sexual experience Can show correlations between risk behaviors among students The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System • • • An annual state-based survey of adults, age 18-49, sponsored by the CDC Gathers information on health behaviors including those which prevent or transmit HIV Some findings: • • Half of those who used condoms at last intercourse used them to prevent disease & pregnancy, while only 1 in 10 used a condom only to prevent disease Less than 1 in 10 believed that their chances of acquiring HIV were medium to high. The National Survey of Family Growth Conducted by the National Center for Health Statistics (NCHS) Collects data related to marriage, divorce, contraception, infertility, and health of women & infants Some findings: 1 in 4 women who cohabitates with a man does not expect to marry him Cohabitating women’s marriage expectations are correlated to the social and economic status of the man College Alcohol Study • • Conducted by Harvard School of Public Health Examines college alcohol abuse & other high-risk behaviors including unsafe sex • Some findings: • • • • 71% of respondents reported being sexually experienced Less than one-half reported always using a condom, and 24% reported never using condoms Younger students who lived on campus were more likely to report consistent condom use Men reporting more sex partners tended to report less consistent condom use Community Intervention Trial for Youth Project • • Funded by the CDC A multi-site evaluation of a comprehensive community-level HIV prevention intervention in 13 urban areas • • • Surveyed men age 15-25 who reported sexual experience with a male in the past year One-fifth reported being high on drugs or alcohol during their most recent sexual encounter One-quarter with a main sex partner reported anal intercourse without condom use Emerging Research Perspectives • Feminist Scholarship • • Focuses on gender issues, distribution of power in sexual relationships Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender Research • Focuses on the psychological and social experience of being transgender and/or other than heterosexual Research Studies Homosexuality The Janus Report (1993): large survey on sexual behavior in the U.S.; sectioned out regions in the U.S.; not a random sample National Health and Social Life Survey (NHSLS): Laumann, Gagnon, Michael, & Michaels (1994); surveyed a representative sample of the U.S. on sexual behaviors and attitudes Ethnicity and Sexuality • Researchers have begun to recognize the significance of ethnicity in sexuality • • • Differences among ethnic groups Differences within ethnic groups Related factors: socioeconomic status, environment, methodology, researcher’s stereotypes Ethnicity and Sexuality • • Sexual stereotyping by Euro-Americans has distorted public & scientific understanding of the sexuality of minority racial groups Examples of stereotypes: • • • African-Americans as hypersexual Latina women as permissive and Latino men as macho Asian sexuality as exotic Ethnicity and Sexuality • Some important factors in studying sexuality and ethnicity: • • • African-Americans: the role of socioeconomic status in sexual values and behaviors Latino/as: the diversity of ethnic subgroups, the degree of acculturation into American culture Asian Americans & Pacific Islanders: the diversity of cultures, the role of familial relationships Future: Beyond ProblemDriven Research Need for financial support Congressional and religious opposition Reliance on pharmaceutical companies for funding Many sex researchers work in a “Scientific underground” Many unexplored topics within human sexuality Future direction to understand emotional and relational aspects