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Human Sexuality: 2
Studying Human Sexuality
Survey says…
In the survey method for collecting sexual
information
A. people tend to be poor reporters of their
own sexual behavior.
B. the interviewers may be biased and
subjective.
C. the respondents may hesitate to reveal
information.
D. All of the above.
What goes on in other
people’s bedrooms?
•
•
•
•
•
What do women really want?
Who makes the best lovers?
Have you ever lied about your weight?
Can you name a researcher who studied
sexuality?
What could you find out from research in
human sexuality?
Sex, Advice Columnists,
and Pop Psychology
•
The sex information/advice genre seeks to
o
o
•
•
Inform: transmit information that is factual and accurate
Entertain: attract audiences through hosts’ personalities,
as well as high-interest or bizarre material
Focuses on “how-to” or morality
Uses the trappings of social science and psychiatry,
without their substance.
Use and Abuse of Statistics
•
Media frequently quotes or summarizes social
science research, but in an oversimplified or
distorted manner:
o
o
o
Sensationalizes findings
Overgeneralizes results of research
Promotes statistics that agree with widely-held
preconceptions
Thinking Critically about Sex
Basic to scientific studies is a commitment to
objectivity
•
o
o
The observation of things as they exist in reality
as opposed to researchers’ feelings or beliefs
about them
Not easy to achieve objectivity in the study of
sexuality
1.
2.
Sexuality can bring out powerful emotions and moral
ambivalence
Sex is experienced subjectively
Value Judgments vs.
Objectivity
•
Objectivity about sex is challenging for us
o
o
Our culture has traditionally viewed sexuality in
moral terms
We tend to make value judgments about sex,
i.e. evaluations based on moral or ethical
standards
Value Judgments vs.
Objectivity
•
In sex research, value judgments can be
blinders to understanding
o
o
o
o
Do not tell us what motivates people
Do not tell us how frequently people behave in a
given way
Do not tell us how people feel
Only tell us how we ourselves feel
Value Judgments vs.
Objectivity
•
•
•
•
Value judgments imply how a person ought to
behave
Objective statements describe how people
actually behave
Value judgments cannot be empirically
evaluated
Objective statements can be empirically
evaluated
Opinions, Biases, and
Stereotypes
•
Opinions, biases, and stereotypes also
interfere with the pursuit of knowledge
o
o
o
Opinions are unsubstantiated beliefs or
conclusions according to an individual’s personal
thoughts
Biases are personal leanings or inclinations
Stereotypes are sets of overgeneralized beliefs
about an individual, a group, an idea, etc.
Opinions, Biases, and
Stereotypes
•
Sexual stereotyping is often used to justify
discrimination
o
Targets are usually members of subordinate social
groups, such as
o
o
o
o
Women
Poor people
African Americans, Latino/as, Asian Americans
Gay men, lesbians, bisexuals, transgender people
Stereotypes
•
•
Stereotypes structure knowledge.
They are a type of schema that organizes our
thought process, affecting:
o
o
o
o
What we see
What we notice
What we remember
How we explain things
Confusing Attitudes and
Behavior
•
•
•
Attitude: a predisposition a person has to
act, think, or feel in certain ways
Behavior: the way a person acts
Frequent discrepancies exist between the
two, on individual and cultural levels
o
Example: someone who disapproves of casual sex,
yet engages in it
Egocentrism and
Ethnocentrism
•
Fallacy: an error in reasoning that affects our
understanding of a subject
o
o
Egocentric fallacy: the belief that our own
personal experience & values are generally held by
others
Ethnocentric fallacy: the belief that one’s own
ethnic group, nation, or culture’s values and
customs are innately superior to others’
Theory and Research



Theories are the intellectual structure
(assumptions, principles, methods) for
understanding sexuality
Research helps answer questions about
human sexuality
Many disciplines conduct research in
sexuality, varying in the questions
asked and scientific approaches taken
Theories About Sexuality


Many theories guide our thoughts about
human sexuality
Most theorists utilize multiple
perspectives
Psychoanalytic Theory

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Freud (1856-1939)
Most influential psychological theory of
sexuality
Sex drive is a very important life force
Two controversial concepts:
Personality formation
 Psychosexual development

Behavioral Theory


Only study overt behavior; ignore
internal states
Operant conditioning (Skinner)
reinforcement
 punishment


Behavior modification – tool to change
unwanted behavior

Aversion therapy
Social Learning Theory

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Bandura
Basis in operant conditioning
Also consider internal events in
affecting behavior
Identification and imitation of same-sex
parent in development of our gender
identity
Peer pressure influence on our sexuality
Cognitive Theory


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Individual differences in processing
information
Behavior is a result of our perceptions
and conceptualizations of our
environment
Largest sex organ – the brain
We are sexually aroused by what we
think is sexually arousing
Humanistic Theory


Self-actualization – we try to be the best
we can become
Unconditional positive regard allows us
to become self-actualized
Biological Theory


Our sexuality is controlled by our
physiology, genetics
Sexual problems due to physiological
causes; interventions include
medications or surgery
Evolutionary Theory




Combination of evolution and sociology
Sexuality serves mainly to reproduce
Primary goal is to pass on one’s genes
Consider mater preferences from an
evolutionary perspective
Sociological Theory


Sexual expression varies across
societies
Institutions influence rules societies hold
regarding the expression of sexuality
Family
 Religion
 Economy
 Medicine
 Law

Feminist Theory



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Sexology is dominated by white, middleclass, heterosexist attitudes
Sexuality research is based on male
sexuality
Social construction of sexuality based
on power, historically held by men
Women as passive and submissive
Sexuality used by men to maintain
power over women
Queer Theory



Heterosexism and homophobia should
be resisted
Heterosexism is not the norm, with all
else deviant
Sexual categories are cultural
constructions that limit and restrain
Sex Research Methods
•
Scientific Method: the method by which a
hypothesis is formed from impartially gathered
data and tested empirically.
o
o
Induction: drawing a general conclusion from
specific facts
Seeks to describe the world rather than evaluate
or judge it
Research Concerns
•
Ethical
o
•
Concerns center on use of human beings as
subjects of research
Methodological
o
o
Concerns center on information-gathering
techniques and accuracy
A representative sample of people is necessary to
draw accurate conclusions
Ethical Issues
•
Informed consent
•
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Protection from harm
•
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Full disclosure of purpose, risk, benefits
Includes anonymity
Use of deception
•
•
Some experiments involve deceiving subjects
Researcher debriefs subject afterwards to reveal
deception
Sampling
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Sample: a portion of a larger group of people
observed or studied
•
Useful samples are:
•
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Random
Representative
•
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Reflect the larger group in terms of age, sex, ethnicity,
socioeconomic status, sexual orientation, etc.
An unrepresentative sample is called a “biased sample.”
Limitations of Samples
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Most samples in sex research are limited
•
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They depend on volunteers or clients
Research takes place at universities or colleges
with student volunteers
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Students not representative of general population
Some ethnic groups are underrepresented
It is difficult to recruit homosexual and bisexual
subjects who have not “come out”
Clinical Research
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Clinical Research:
•
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An in-depth examination of an individual or group
that comes to a specialist for assistance with
disorders and problems (Freud)
Limited by an emphasis on pathological
(unhealthy or diseased) behavior
•
Dependent on cultural definitions of what is
unhealthy
Survey Research
•
Uses questionnaires or interviews to gather
information.
•
Limitations:
•
•
•
(cont.)
People do not report their own sexual behavior
accurately
Interviewers may allow their preconceptions to
influence questioning, which biases responses
Some respondents may not want to reveal
“embarrassing” sexual information in a face-to-face
interview
Survey Research
•
Limitations (continued):
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Interviewer’s gender can influence disclosure
Accuracy of subjects’ memory fades as time passes
Difficult for subjects to accurately estimate factors such
as how long sexual encounters last
New techniques:
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Computer-based interviews
Internet questionnaires
Observational Research
•
The researcher unobtrusively observes and
makes notes about people’s behavior
•
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Serious ethical issues in observing sexual behavior
without subjects’ knowledge or consent
Known observation generally affects behavior
Participant Observation
•
The researcher participates in the behaviors
which she or he is studying
•
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Used frequently by anthropologists
In sex research, more controversial
•
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Snyder studied prostitution by becoming a customer
Humphreys studied anonymous sex by men in public
bathrooms by becoming a lookout
Experimental Research
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The systematic manipulation of individuals or
the environment to learn the effect of such
manipulation on behavior
•
Can control experiments by using variables
•
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Independent variables: factors that can be
manipulated and changed by the experimenter
Dependent variables: factors that are likely to be
affected by changes in the independent variable
Experimental Research
•
Correlational studies:
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Measure two or more naturally occurring
variables to determine their relationship to each
other
•
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Can’t determine which variable causes which
Experimental studies
•
Manipulate the independent variables so
researchers can determine which variables cause
other variables to change
The Sex Researchers
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In 19th century, Western sexuality began to be
studied from a scientific framework
•
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Fascinated with “pathologies” of sex: fetishism,
sadism, masturbation, homosexuality
Since that time, a liberalizing trend in our
thinking about sexuality
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20th century researchers viewed sexuality more
positively
Recent Sexuality Research
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Late 1980s, early 1990s increase in
sexuality research
Prompted by HIV/AIDS
Primarily “problem-driven” research, not
healthy sexuality
Pressure from conservative groups
Multiple disciplines studying sex has
fragmented research
Recent Sexuality Research
(Cont.)
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Popular media sensationalizes and
distorts information
Sexologist – researcher, educator,
clinician specializing in sexuality;
usually PhD
Researchers feel pressure to research
select topics and avoid others
Academic programs specializing in
human sexuality; need steady funding
Politics and Sex Research
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Sexuality research changes with the
political climate
Changing roles of women, development
of birth control pills, and Kinsey’s work
led to less acceptance for the double
standard
HIV/AIDS crisis provided a new
opportunity for sex research
Political resistance even today
The Sex Researchers

Three themes evident in later 20th century sex
researchers’ work:
Belief that sexual expression is essential to an
individual’s well being
 Desire to broaden the range of legitimate sexual
activity, including homosexuality
 Belief that female sexuality is equal of male
sexuality

Early Promoters of Sexology
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Bloch (1872-1922): Published the
Journal of Sexology beginning 1914
Moll (1862-1939): In 1913, began the
International Society for Sex Research;
authored sexology books
Hirschfeld (1868-1935): Worked to
better the treatment of homosexuals
and bisexuals; developed an Institute
for Sexology
Early Promoters of Sexology
(Cont.)
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Krafft-Ebing (1840-1902): Sexual
pathology
Ellis (1859-1939): Published six-volume
work on sexuality; refuted deviance of
homosexuality and masturbation
All early researchers legitimized the
study of sexuality
Findings lacked consistency and
organization
Sexuality Research Moves to
the United States
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Mosher (1863-1940): First to ask
Americans about their sexual behavior;
helped married women have better sex
lives
Bement Davis (1861-1935): Prostitution
and STIs; homosexuality is not
abnormal
Katharine Bement Davis (1861 – 1935) conducted some of the largest and most comprehensive
sexuality studies to date.
Richard von Krafft-Ebing
(1840-1902)
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Psychopathia Sexualis (1886):
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A collection of the case histories of fetishists,
sadists, masochists, and homosexuals
Attributed variations in Victorian sexuality to
“hereditary taint,” “moral degeneracy,” and
masturbation
Brought public attention to sexual behaviors that
had never been documented
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939), the father of psychoanalysis, set the stage for all other
psychological theories.
Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Freud’s writings on sexuality have dramatically
impacted Western ideas

Believed that sexuality begins at birth, with fivestage development:
Oral stage (birth to 1 year)
 Anal stage (age 1-3)
 Phallic stage (age 3-5)
 Latency stage (age 6-puberty)
 Genital stage (puberty onward)

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)
•
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Freud was pioneering in commitment to
science and explorations of the unconscious
His influence among American sex
researchers has dwindled
•
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Criticized for his lack of empiricism and
inadequate description of female development
In the field of sex research, his work is now
primarily of historical interest
Havelock Ellis (1859-1939)
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Set himself against Victorian repression of sexuality
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One of the first modern affirmers of sexuality
Studies in the Psychology of Sex (1897-1910)
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Pointed out the relativity of sexual values
Appealed to case studies as well as studies in animal behavior,
anthropology, and history
Challenged view that masturbation was abnormal
Documented existence of women’s sexual desires
Reevaluated homosexuality as a congenital condition
Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956) implemented the first large-scale survey of adult sexual behavior in the
United States.
Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956)
•
“The Kinsey Reports”
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Sexual Behavior in the Human Male (1948)
Sexual Behavior in the Human Female (1953)
•
•
(cont.)
Statistical documentation of American sexual behavior
Showed a significant discrepancy between public
standards and actual standards of sexual behavior
Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956)
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Sexual Diversity & Variation
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Extraordinary diversity in behaviors of subjects
Reevaluation of Masturbation
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Deemed it important for women, harmless, and
pleasurable
Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956)
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Same-Sex Behavior
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Many subjects (e.g. 50% of men) had had sexual
experiences with members of the same-sex
Labels of “heterosexual” and “homosexual” are
inadequate ways of understanding sexual behavior
Devised the “Kinsey Scale,” a continuum to chart the
proportion of an individual’s sexual behaviors with
same- or other-sex individuals
Kinsey’s Scale from 0 to 6
Alfred Kinsey (1894-1956)
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Rejection of Normal/Abnormal Dichotomy
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Sexual differences are a matter of degree, not kind.
Became a leading advocate of the toleration of sexual
differences
Criticisms of Kinsey:
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Statistical methodology: unrepresentative sampling
Emphasis on quantification of sexual behavior
Rejection of the psychological dimension (reducing
behavior to genital activity)
Virginia Johnson and William Masters were the first to bring sexuality into the laboratory.
To measure physiological changes during sexual arousal, researches rely on strain gauges and
photoplethysmographs. A penile strain gauge is placed on the base of the penis to measure
erectile changes in the penis, while a photoplethysmograph is inserted in the vaginal canal to
measure changes I vaginal lubrication.
Masters & Johnson
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Human Sexual Response (1966)
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Detailed the sexual response cycles of hundreds of
male and female research subjects
Combined clinical observation with direct
measurement of genital arousal using electronic devices
Outcomes:
•
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Male and female sexual responses are very similar
Women achieve orgasm primarily via clitoral stimulation
Legitimized female masturbation
Masters & Johnson
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Human Sexual Inadequacy (1970)
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Argued that sexual problems were not the result
of neuroses or personality disorders
Rather, lack of information, poor communication,
or relationship conflict contributed
Used behavioral therapy to treat sexual problems
•
Achieved astounding increase in rate of successful
treatment
Research Studies
Homosexuality
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Few large-scale studies
Hooker: Early 1950s; professionals
could not differentiate gay and straight
males
Bell & Weinberg: Homosexualities
(1978)
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
majority of homosexual men and women do not conform to
stereotypes
aren’t sexual predators
homosexuals and heterosexuals are similar in intimate
relationships
Dr. Evelyn Hooker published the first empirical study to challenge the psychiatric view that
homosexuality was a mental illness. Her work ultimately led to the removal of homosexuality
from the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.
Research Studies
Homosexuality


The Janus Report (1993): large survey
on sexual behavior in the U.S.;
sectioned out regions in the U.S.; not a
random sample
National Health and Social Life Survey
(NHSLS): Laumann, Gagnon, Michael,
& Michaels (1994); surveyed a
representative sample of the U.S. on
sexual behaviors and attitudes
Contemporary Research
Studies
•
Several large-scale sexuality related studies have
recently been conducted
•
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•
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The National Health and Social Life Survey (1994)
The Youth Risk Behavior Survey (biannual)
The Behavioral Risk Factor Surveillance System (annual)
The National Survey of Family Growth (periodic)
College Alcohol Study (every few years)
Community Intervention Trial for Youth Project
The National Health & Social
Life Survey (1994)
•
Findings:
•
•
•
•
Americans are largely monogamous
On average, Americans have sex about once a week
Adultery is the exception, not the rule
Most Americans are fairly “traditional” in the bedroom
•
Vaginal intercourse ranked as favorite activity
The National Health & Social
Life Survey (1994)
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Homosexuality less prevalent than originally believed
Orgasms appear to be the rule for men and the
exception for women
•
•
•
Married women more likely to report they “usually” or
“always” have orgasms
Forced sex and the misperception of it remain critical
problems
3% of adult Americans claim never to have had sex
The Youth Risk Behavior
Survey
•
Measures health risk behaviors among high school
students, including
•
•
Sexual behaviors that contribute to unintended pregnancy,
STDs, & HIV
2001 findings include:
•
•
•
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46% report having had sexual intercourse
58% of those students used a condom during their last sexual
intercourse
26% of sexually active students report using alcohol or drugs
during most recent sexual experience
Can show correlations between risk behaviors among
students
The Behavioral Risk Factor
Surveillance System
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•
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An annual state-based survey of adults, age 18-49,
sponsored by the CDC
Gathers information on health behaviors including
those which prevent or transmit HIV
Some findings:
•
•
Half of those who used condoms at last intercourse used
them to prevent disease & pregnancy, while only 1 in 10
used a condom only to prevent disease
Less than 1 in 10 believed that their chances of acquiring
HIV were medium to high.
The National Survey
of Family Growth
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

Conducted by the National Center for Health
Statistics (NCHS)
Collects data related to marriage, divorce,
contraception, infertility, and health of women &
infants
Some findings:


1 in 4 women who cohabitates with a man does not
expect to marry him
Cohabitating women’s marriage expectations are
correlated to the social and economic status of the man
College Alcohol Study
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•
Conducted by Harvard School of Public Health
Examines college alcohol abuse & other high-risk
behaviors including unsafe sex
•
Some findings:
•
•
•
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71% of respondents reported being sexually experienced
Less than one-half reported always using a condom, and 24%
reported never using condoms
Younger students who lived on campus were more likely to
report consistent condom use
Men reporting more sex partners tended to report less consistent
condom use
Community Intervention Trial
for Youth Project
•
•
Funded by the CDC
A multi-site evaluation of a comprehensive
community-level HIV prevention intervention in 13
urban areas
•
•
•
Surveyed men age 15-25 who reported sexual experience
with a male in the past year
One-fifth reported being high on drugs or alcohol during
their most recent sexual encounter
One-quarter with a main sex partner reported anal
intercourse without condom use
Emerging Research
Perspectives
•
Feminist Scholarship
•
•
Focuses on gender issues, distribution of power in
sexual relationships
Gay, Lesbian, Bisexual and Transgender
Research
•
Focuses on the psychological and social
experience of being transgender and/or other
than heterosexual
Research Studies
Homosexuality


The Janus Report (1993): large survey
on sexual behavior in the U.S.;
sectioned out regions in the U.S.; not a
random sample
National Health and Social Life Survey
(NHSLS): Laumann, Gagnon, Michael,
& Michaels (1994); surveyed a
representative sample of the U.S. on
sexual behaviors and attitudes
Ethnicity and Sexuality
•
Researchers have begun to recognize the
significance of ethnicity in sexuality
•
•
•
Differences among ethnic groups
Differences within ethnic groups
Related factors: socioeconomic status,
environment, methodology, researcher’s
stereotypes
Ethnicity and Sexuality
•
•
Sexual stereotyping by Euro-Americans has
distorted public & scientific understanding of
the sexuality of minority racial groups
Examples of stereotypes:
•
•
•
African-Americans as hypersexual
Latina women as permissive and Latino men as
macho
Asian sexuality as exotic
Ethnicity and Sexuality
•
Some important factors in studying sexuality and
ethnicity:
•
•
•
African-Americans: the role of socioeconomic status in
sexual values and behaviors
Latino/as: the diversity of ethnic subgroups, the degree of
acculturation into American culture
Asian Americans & Pacific Islanders: the diversity of
cultures, the role of familial relationships
Future: Beyond ProblemDriven Research
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

Need for financial support
Congressional and religious opposition
Reliance on pharmaceutical companies for
funding
Many sex researchers work in a “Scientific
underground”
Many unexplored topics within human
sexuality
Future direction to understand emotional and
relational aspects