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Theories of Learning
Day 4
TEMP
2012-03-14
08.30 – 16.00
Träff 1
Introduktion
Lärande samtal
Program
08.30
Learning Theories
10.00
Break
10.00
Learning Theories
12.00
Lunch
13.30
Learning Theories
LEARNING THEORIES
AN EDUCATIONAL PERSPECTIVE
DALE H. SCHUNK
Learning theories – an Educational Perspective
Dale H. Schunk
Primary objectives of the book
a) To inform students of learning theoretical principles, concepts, and
research findings, especially as they relate to education
b) To provide applications of principles and concepts in settings
where teaching and learning occur
Content
• Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study of Learning
• Chapter 2: Neuroscience of Learning
• Chapter 3: Behaviorism
• Chapter 4: Social Cognitive Theory
• Chapter 6: Constructivism
• Chapter 7: Cognitive Learning Processes
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study of Learning
Definition of learning:
No one definition, but many agree on:
“Learning is an enduring change of behavior, or in the capacity to
behave in a given fashion, which results from practice or other form of
experience”
Psychology as a science
Systematic psychological research from the latter part of the nineteenth century
Important for the study of learning
Experiments and observations, not just philosophical discussions.
Wundt, Ebbinghaus
Structuralism: a combination between associations and experiments, studied the
structure or makeup of mental processes, the mind is composed of associations of ideas,
studied the parts, but did not say how you acquire these associations
Introspection – self-analysis
Functionalism: mental processes and behaviors of living organisms help them adapt to
their environments.
A holistic view, mind and body is interacting
Focus on how mental processes operate, what they accomplish and how they vary with
environmental conditions
Research Paradigms
A theory is a scientifically acceptable set of principles offered to explain
a phenomenon, framework for interpreting environmental observations,
a bridge between research and education.
Research from hypothesis/assumptions
if I do X, then Y should occur, e.g. X = praise students for their progress
in learning, Y= raise their self-confidence.
Will the result strengthen the theory or does it require a revision of the
theory?
One can also start research by asking questions
How Does one Know that Learning has Occurred and how
to Measure it?
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Direct observation
Written responses
Oral responses
Ratings by others
Self-reports
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Questionnaires
Interviews
Stimulated recalls
Think-alouds
Dialogues
Instructional Principles Common to Many Learning Theories
Research is ultimately to improve teaching that promotes learning
 Learners progress through stages/phases
 Material should be organized in small steps
 Learners require practice, feedback, and review
 Social models facilitate learning and motivation
 Motivational and contextual factors influence learning
Learning Theory and Educational Practice
Theory and practice complement and refine one another.
Many theoretical developments eventually become implemented in the
classrooms.
Contemporary educational practices – such as cooperative learning,
reciprocal teaching, and differentiating instruction for individual learners
have strong theoretical underpinnings and research to support them.
On the contrary – experience can support or revive theory. For example
- research on processing information did not take into account different
individuals and the classroom environment
Critical Issues for Learning Theories
 How does learning occur?
 What is the role of memory?
 What is the role of motivation?
 How does transfer occur?
 Which processes are involved in self-regulation?
 What are the implications for instruction?
Chapter 2: Neuroscience of Learning
Educational practices that are derived from learning theories and
supported by both learning research and brain research.
• Problem-based learning
• Simulations and role-playing
• Active discussions
• Graphics
• Positive climate
Three dimensions of learning
EMOTIONAL
COGNITIVE
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To create
meaning
To understand
To master
To mobilize
mental
energy
Motivation
Feelings
Will
Konwledge
Understanding
Skills
Discussion in pairs
SOCIAL
Act
Communication
Cooperation
• Analyze one of the five texts
from the three dimensions
• Have you done something
simular in your own practice or
do you get an idea of something
you would like to do? Describe
it!
Chapter 3: Behaviorism
Conditioning theories of learning - explain learning in terms of
environmental events. Observable and measurable phenomena =
behavior
Connectionism Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949).
The most fundamental type of learning involves the forming of associations (connections)
between sensory experiences (perception of stimuli or events) and neural impulses
(responses) that manifest themselves behaviorally.
The consequences of behavior: responses resulting in satisfying (rewarding)
consequences are learned; responses producing annoying (punishing) consequences
are not learned
Operant conditioning B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
Learning: the strengthening of behavior which results from reinforcement (rewards)
Thorndike’s Contributions to Educational Practice
Principles of teaching: Teachers should help students form good
habits. Students need to understand how to apply knowledge and skills
they acquire. Uses should be learned in conjunction with the content.
Sequence of curricula: A skill should be introduced: when it can be
used, when there is a useful purpose, most suited in difficulty to the
ability of the learner.
Knowledge and skills should be taught with different subjects (not as
segregated subjects as is common)
Key Operant Conditioning Concepts
Reinforcers
are defined based on their effects (do not depend on mental processes)
Cannot be determined in advance, are situationally specific: they apply
to individuals at given times under given conditions.
- positive reinforcement – when presented increases the future
likelihood of that response occurring in that situation
- negative reinforcement – remove negative reinforce
punishment: punishment does not teach how to behave, can hinder
future learning by creating a conflict
Generalization
Once a certain response occurs regularly to a given stimuli, the response also may occur
in other situations (e.g. good academic habits, strategies …)
Facilitating generalization:
• Parental involvement
• High expectations
• Self-evaluation
• Contingencies (withdraw artificial contingencies e.g. points and replace with natural
ones e.g. privileges)
• Participation
• Academics
• Benefits
• Reinforcements
• Consistency
Discrimination; complementary process to generalization, responding differently
Behavioral Change (shaping)
• Identify what the students can do now
• Identify the desired behavior
• Identify potential reinforcers in the student’s environment
• Break the desired into small substeps
• Move the student from the initial behavior to the desired behavior by
successively reinforcing each approximation to the desired behavior
Shaping is learning by doing with corrective feedback
- Premack’s principle; (how to predict reinforcers) the opportunity to
engage in a more valued activity reinforces engaging in a less valued
activity,
Key Educational Applications of Operant Principle to
Education
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Behavioral objectives; clear statements of the intended student outcomes of
instruction. Objectives can range from generic to specific.
Learning time
Mastery learning (contains cognitive elements)
Define mastery: teachers prepare a set of objectives and a final exam (summative)
Planning for mastery: teachers plan instructional procedures for themselves and
students which include feedback (formative evaluation)
Teaching for mastery: teachers orient to the mastery procedures and provide
instruction (entire class, small groups, individuals)
Grading for mastery: a summative end of course test
Includes a progression. The students are allowed to progress at their own rates.
Mastery learning can build students’ self-efficacy for learning as they note their
progress.
Programmed instruction; computer programmes
Contingency contracts: an agreement between student and teacher
Discussion in pairs
• Talk about your reflections on the text.
• How would you solve a simular situation?
Chapter 4: Social Cognitive Theory
People learn from actual doing (enactive learning)
- but people can also learn by observing others (vicarious learning)
Modeling
Reinforcement is not necessary
Much learning occurs in a social environment
People desire to control the events that affect their lives
Learning and performing are distinct processes
Conceptual Framework for Learning
Albert Bandura (1925 -)
Triadic reciprocality
Person
Behavior
Environment
Modeling Processes
Imitation
- Instinct
- Development.
- (Piaget) Imitation is restricted to existing schemes.
- Imitation is not a simple reflection of developmental level, instead
serve an important role in promoting development (Rosenthal &
Zimmerman)
- Conditioning
- (Skinner) if reinforcement.
- (Bandura) even without reinforcement
Observational learning
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Attention. Student attention is directed by physically accentuating relevant
task features, subdeviding complex activities into parts, using competent
models, and demonstrating usefulness of modeled behavoirs
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Retention. Retention is increased by rehearsing information to be learned,
coding in visual and symbolic form, and relating new material to information
previously stored in memory.
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Production. Behaviors produced and compared to one’s conceptual
(mental) representation. Feedback helps to correct deficiencies.
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Motivation. Consequences of modeled behaviors inform observers of
functional value and appropriateness. Consequences motivate by creating
outcome expectations and raising sel-efficacy.
Influences on Learning and Performance
Observing models does not guarantee that learning will occur. Depends
on:
 Developmental status
 Model prestige and competence
 Vicarious consequences
 Outcome expectations
 Goal setting
 Values
 Self-efficacy
Motivational Processes
• Goals
- specificity
- proximity
- difficulty
• Outcome expectation
• Values
Self- efficacy (efficacy expectations)
Personal beliefs about one’s capabilities to learn or to perform actions.
A belief about what one is capable of doing (perceptions of one’s
capability), it is not about knowing what to do.
Not the same as outcome expectations
Instructional self-efficacy
Teachers’ beliefs about there capabilities to help students learn.
Influence activities, effort and persistence
Collective teacher efficacy
Discussion in pairs
• Talk about your reflections on the text.
• How do you work on this as a teacher educator?
Chapter 6: Constructivism
You don’t acquire knowledge – you construct it!
Interaction of persons and situations
Constructivism rather new, but has influenced educational thinking
about curriculum and instruction:
- To study a topic from multiple perspectives (watch, read, write, draw,
create…
- Found in professional standards (APA)
- That teachers should not deliver instructions in a traditional way but
rather structure situations such that learners become actively involved
(observing phenomena, collecting data, generating and testing
hypothesis, and working together…
- Students are taught to be self-regulated and take an active role in
their learning
Implication’s of Piaget’s theory for education
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Understand cognitive development
Keep students active
Create incongruity (disequilibrium)
Provide social interaction
Implication’s of Vygotsky’s theory for education
• Social interactions are critical
• Self-regulation is developed through internalization (developing an
internal representation) of actions and mental operations that occur
in social interactions
• Human development occurs through the cultural transmissions of
tools (symbols, and most important language)
• The zone of proximal development (ZPD) Interaction with adults.
TARGET -
factors affecting motivation and learning
Task
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Design of learning activities and assignment
Authority
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Belief that students can develop independence
and control over learning activities
Recognition -
Formal and informal use of rewards, encouragement,
praise
Grouping
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Individual, small group, large group
Evaluation
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Methods for monitoring and assessing learning
Time
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Appropriateness of workload, pace of instruction,
time for completing work
Instructional Applications
• Discovery learning
• Inquiry learning
• Peer-assisted learning/cooperative learning
• Discussions and debates
• Reflective teaching
- use context consideration
- use personal knowledge
- use professional knowledge
- make fluid plans
- commit to formal and informal professional growth opportunities
Discussion in pairs
• Talk about your reflections on the text.
• Make a plan together for a thematic work where students have to
use problem solving?
Don´t forget the three dimensions:
– Cognitive
– Emotional
– Social