Download Management 9e - Kreitner

Knowledge Objectives
Understand perspectives on leadership, and
how effective leadership might depend
upon ...
– Traits
– Behaviors
– Situations (Fiedler’s contingency theory)
– Transactions between leaders and followers
(e.g., “path-goal” leadership)
– Transformational activity - charisma
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Knowledge Objectives
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Identify the bases of power in organizations
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Describe how power can be diagnosed and
acquired in organizations
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Leadership
• Leadership Defined
– The process of inspiring, influencing, and guiding
others to participate in a common effort.
• Formal Leadership
– The process of influencing relevant others to pursue
official organizational objectives.
• Informal Leadership
– The process of influencing other to pursue unofficial
objectives that may or may not serve the organization’s
interests.
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Leadership as Traits
• Trait Theory
– The search for universal traits possessed by all
leaders.
– An early trait profile found moderate agreement
on five traits
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Intelligence
Scholarship
Dependability in exercising responsibilities
Activity and social participation
Socioeconomic status
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Leadership as Traits
• A Modern Trait Profile: Leaders with
Emotional Intelligence
– Emotional Intelligence (EI): the ability to
monitor and control one’s emotions and
behavior in complex social settings.
– Leadership traits associated with EI
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Self-awareness
Self-management
Social awareness
Relationship management
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Leadership as Traits
• The Controversy Over Male and Female
Leadership Traits
– Rosener’s research: Female leaders are better at
sharing power and information.
• Later research found no significant differences in the
leadership styles of men and women.
• Women did not fit the female stereotype.
• Men did not fit the male stereotype.
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Leadership as Behavior
• Behavioral Styles Theory
– WWII studies of the patterns of leader
behaviors (leadership styles) rather than who
the leader was (traits).
• Democratic style
• Authoritarian style
• Laissez-faire (hands-off style)
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Leadership as Behavior
• The Ohio State Model
– Initiating structure: leader’s efforts to get things
organized and get things done.
– Consideration: the degree of trust, friendship,
respect, and warmth that the leader extended to
subordinates.
– Identified four leadership styles
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Low structure, high consideration
High structure, high consideration
Low structure, low consideration
High structure, low consideration
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Leadership as Behavior
• The Leadership Grid®
– The belief that there is one best style of
leadership.
• Concern for production: the desire to achieve greater
output, cost-effectiveness, and profits.
• Concern for people: promoting friendships, helping
coworkers get the job done, and attending to things
that matter to people.
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Leadership - dependent on the
situation
• Fiedler’s Contingency Theory
– Performance of the leader depends on
• the degree to which the situation gives the leader
control and influence (favorableness of the
situation).
• the leader’s basic motivation to either accomplish
the task or having supportive relationships with
others (task or relationship motivation).
– The challenge is to match the leader with a
suitable situation: easier to move the leader
than to change the leader’s style.
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Leadership as exchange
• Path-Goal Theory
– Derived from expectancy motivation theory.
– Effective leaders enhance employee motivation by
• clarifying perceptions of work goals.
• linking rewards to goal attainment.
• explaining how goals and rewards can be achieved.
– Leadership styles
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Directive
Supportive
Participative
Achievement-oriented
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Leadership as Transformation
• Transformational Leadership Theory
– Transformational leaders
• Are capable of charting new courses for their organization.
• Are visionaries who challenge people to do exceptional things,
above and beyond the plan.
– Transactional leaders
• Monitor people to so they do the expected, according to plan in
order to maintain the status quo.
• Get people to do things by offering a reward or threatening
them with a punishment.
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Behavior Modification
• Behaviorism
– The belief that observable behavior is more
important than inner states (needs, motive, or
expectations).
• Favorable consequences encourage behavior,
whereas unfavorable consequences discourage
behavior.
• Operant Conditioning
– The study of how behavior is controlled by the
surrounding environment.
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Behavior Modification (cont’d)
• What Is Behavior Modification?
– The practical application of operant
conditioning techniques to everyday behavior
problems.
– The systematic management of environmental
factors to get people to do the right things more
often and the wrong things less often.
– Managing the the antecedents and/or
consequences of observable behavior.
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Behavior Modification (cont’d)
• Managing Antecedents
– Antecedent: an environmental cue for a specific
behavior.
– Cue control: controlling the presentation of
cues to elicit the desired behaviors at specific
places and times.
– Managing antecedents is a way of encouraging
good performance.
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Behavior Modification (cont’d)
• Managing Consequences
– Positive reinforcement: encouraging a behavior with a
pleasing consequence.
– Negative reinforcement: encouraging a behavior by
immediately withdrawing or terminating a displeasing
consequence.
– Extinction: discouraging a behavior by ignoring it.
– Punishment: discouraging a behavior by the immediate
presentation of an undesirable consequence or the
withdrawal of something desirable.
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Behavior Modification (cont’d)
• Positively Reinforce What Is Right About Job
Performance
– Build up desirable job behaviors by reinforcing the
desirable counterpart to an undesirable behavior.
• Focus on the the positive aspects of job performance.
• Schedule Reinforcement Appropriately
– Continuous reinforcement: every instance of a behavior
is rewarded.
– Intermittent reinforcement: rewarding some, but not all,
instances of a behavior; the most effective form of
reinforcement.
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Influence - the exercise of
power in the workplace
• Influence
– Any attempt by a person to change the behavior
of superiors, peers, or lower-level employees.
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Is not inherently good or bad.
Can be used for purely selfish reasons.
Can be used to subvert organizational objectives.
Can be used to enhance organizational effectiveness.
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Power
• What Is Power?
– The ability to marshal the human, informational, and
material resources to get something done.
– Power affects
• Decisions
• Behavior
• Situations
– Types of power
• Power over: the ability to dominate.
• Power to: ability to act freely.
• Power from: ability to resist the demands of others.
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Power (cont’d)
• Five Bases of Power
– Reward power: having the ability to grant
rewards.
– Coercive power: gaining compliance through
threats or punishment.
– Legitimate power: gaining compliance based on
the power associated with holding a superior
position.
– Referent power: gaining compliance based on
charisma or personal identification.
– Expert power: gaining compliance based on the
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ability to dispense valued information.
Power (cont’d)
• Diagnosing and Using Power
– used between moderately dependent
people/groups
– can assess who has it; often symbolic
– control over resources, info, authority
– help others attain power (norms of reciprocity)
– Delay, speed, restructure
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Influence and Power
• Eight Generic Influence Tactics
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Consultation
Rational persuasion
Inspirational appeals
Ingratiating tactics
Coalition tactics
Pressure tactics
Upward appeals
Exchange tactics
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