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Slide 1 A Topical Approach to LIFE-SPAN DEVELOPMENT 1 Introduction John W. Santrock © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 2 Introduction • • • • The Life-Span Perspective The Nature of Development Theories of Development Research in Life-Span Development © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 3 The Life-Span Perspective The Life-Span Perspective • Development—pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through life span © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 4 The Life-Span Perspective The Importance of Studying Life-Span Development • Describe • Explain • Discover ways to optimize © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 5 The Life-Span Perspective Views of Child Development Original sin view Children born into world corrupted with inclination toward evil Tabla rasa view Children born as “blank slates” and acquire characteristics through experience (Locke) Innate goodness view Children born inherently good (Rousseau) © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 6 The Life-Span Perspective Characteristics of the Life-Span Perspective – Lifelong – Multidimensional – Multidirectional – Plastic – Contextual – Multidisciplinary – Growth, Maintenance, and Regulation © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 7 The Life-Span Perspective Influences on Development Normative agegraded influences Normative historygraded influences Nonnormative life events Biological and environmental influences similar for individuals in a particular age group Biological and environmental influences associated with history Unusual occurrences that have a major impact on a person’s life © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 8 Normative Age-Graded Influences • • • • Puberty Started formal education Menopause Retired © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 9 Normative History-Graded Influences • Economic Changes • 9/11 • War in Iraq © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 10 Non-Normative Life Events • Death of a parent • Sexual abuse • Brain injury © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 11 The Nature of Development Processes in Development © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 12 The Nature of Development Periods of Development • • • • Prenatal Infancy Early childhood Middle and late childhood • • • • Adolescence Early adulthood Middle adulthood Late adulthood © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 13 The Nature of Development Conceptions of Age • Chronological age—number of years elapsed since person’s birth • Biological age—age in terms of biological health • Psychological age—individual’s adaptive capacities • Social age—social roles and expectations related to person’s age © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 14 The Nature of Development Developmental Issues Nature and Nurture Extent to which development is influenced by nature and by nurture Stability and Change Degree to which early traits and characteristics persist through life or change ContinuityDiscontinuity Extent development involves gradual, cumulative change (continuity) or distinct stages (discontinuity) © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 15 Nature Biological Inheritance • Genes • Biological Functions – Neurotransmitters • Serotonin • Dopamin – Hormones • Cortisol • Testosterone • Estrogen © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 16 Nature (cont.) Physical appearance/Characteristics • Height, hair color, eye color • Clumsiness? Grace? Artistic or Music ability? Spatial Skills? Extreme environmental deprivation can affect development © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 17 Nurture • Biological Environment – Nutrition, medical care, drugs, physical accidents • Social Environment – Family, peers, schools, community, media, culture © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 18 Nature or Nurture? • Stress/Diathesis Model for Mental Illness – Genetic predisposition in combo with stressful life events or circumstances MZ • Major Depressive • Bipolar • Schizophrenia 40% 70% 30-50% DZ 11% 15% 10-15% © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 19 Nature or Nurture? • Complex Interaction between the two Maternal Instinct? Brazelton Baby with feeding problems © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 20 The Nature of Development Continuity and Discontinuity in Development © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 21 The Nature of Development Evaluating the Developmental Issues • Most life-span developmentalists do not take extreme positions on the three developmental issues – Nature and nurture – Stability and change – Continuity and discontinuity © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 22 Theories of Development Psychoanalytic Theories • Importance of: – Unconscious processes – Early experiences – Heavily couched in emotion – Behavior a surface characteristic – Important to analyze symbolic meanings of behavior © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 23 Defense Mechanisms • • • • • • • Repression Reaction-Formation Projection Regression Conversion Undoing Dissociation © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 24 Theories of Development Freud’s Psychosexual Theory • Id • Ego • Superego Freud’s Stages Oral Anal Adult personality determined by way we Phallic resolve conflicts between sources of pleasure at Latency each stage and demands Genital of reality © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 25 Theories of Development Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory • Eight stages of development – Unique development task confronts individuals with crisis that must be resolved – Positive resolution builds foundation for healthy development © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 26 Theories of Development Erikson’s Life-Span Stages Late adulthood Middle adulthood Early adulthood Adolescence Integrity vs. despair Generativity vs. stagnation Intimacy vs. isolation Identity vs. identity confusion Middle\late childhood Industry vs. inferiority Initiative vs. guilt Infancy/Early childhood Autonomy vs. shame and doubt Trust vs. mistrust © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 27 Theories of Development Evaluating the Psychoanalytic Theories • Contributions • Criticisms – Early experiences – Family relationships – Unconscious – Adult changes – Difficult to test – Emphasis on sexual underpinnings – Unconscious too important – Negative – Culture and gender bias © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 28 Theories of Development Piaget’s Cognitive Developmental Theory • Children actively construct understanding • Go through four stages of cognitive development – Sensorimotor – Preoperational – Concrete Operational – Formal Operational © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 29 Theories of Development Vygotsky’s Sociocultural Cognitive Theory • Emphasizes how culture and social interaction guide cognitive development • Social interaction with more skilled adults and peers advances cognitive development © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 30 Theories of Development Information-Processing Theory • Emphasizes individuals manipulate information, monitor it, and strategize about it – Memory – Thinking © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 31 Theories of Development Evaluating the Cognitive Theories • Criticisms • Contributions – Active construction of understanding – Importance of developmental changes – Detailed descriptions – Lack individual variations – Information processing theory lacks description – Unconscious © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 32 Theories of Development Behavioral Theories • Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning – Neutral stimulus paired with active stimulus to produce response • Skinner’s Operant Conditioning – Consequences of behavior changes probability of behavior’s occurrence © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 33 Theories of Development Social Cognitive Theories • Behavior, environment, and person/cognition are important development factors – Albert Bandura – Walter Mischel © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 34 Bandura’s Social Cognitive Model © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 35 Theories of Development Evaluating the Behavioral and Social Cognitive Theories • Criticisms • Contributions – Scientific research – Environmental determinants – Observational learning – Person and cognitive factors – Lack focus on cognition – Overemphasize environmental determinants – Too little attention to developmental changes © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 36 Theories of Development Ethological Theory • Behavior – Strongly influenced by biology – Tied to evolution – Characterized by critical or sensitive periods © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 37 Theories of Development Evaluating Ethological Theory • Criticisms • Contributions – Biological and evolutionary – Careful observations – Sensitive periods of development – Emphasis on biological foundations – Inadequate attention to cognition – Animal focus © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 38 Theories of Development Ecological Theory • Bronfenbrenner’s view that development influenced by five environmental systems – Microsystem – Mesosystem – Exosystem – Macrosystem – Chronosystem © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 39 Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Theory © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 40 Theories of Development Sociocultural Contexts • Cross-cultural studies—comparisons of one culture with one or more other cultures. • Ethnicity—range of characteristics rooted in cultural heritage. • Gender—psychological and sociocultural dimension of being female or male. © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 41 Theories of Development Evaluating Ecological Theory • Criticisms • Contributions – Macro and micro dimensions – Connections – Sociohistorical influences – Lacks emphasis on biological foundations – Inadequate attention to cognitive processes © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 42 Theories of Development Family Contexts • Children in non-poor home environments were more likely than those in poor homes to: – Get responses to their speech – Have toys or interesting activities – Have ten or more books of their own – See their father daily – Were less likely to be slapped or spanked © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 43 Theories of Development Characteristics of Resilient Children © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 44 Theories of Development An Eclectic Theoretical Orientation • Does not strictly follow any one theoretical approach • Selects whatever is considered the best in each theory © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 45 Research in Life-Span Development Methods for Collecting Data • Observation – Laboratory—controlled setting – Naturalistic observation—observing behavior in real-world settings • Survey and Interview © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 46 Research in Life-Span Development Methods for Collecting Data • Standardized Test—test with uniform procedures for administration and scoring • Psychophysiological Measures • Case Study—in-depth look at individual • Life History Record © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 47 Research in Life-Span Development Research Designs • Descriptive Research—observes and records behavior • Correlational Research—strength of relation between events or characteristics – Correlation coefficient—describes degree of association between two variables © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 48 Research in Life-Span Development Experiments • Carefully regulated procedures in which one or more factors are manipulated while all other factors are held constant – Independent and Dependent Variables – Experimental and Control Groups • Can state cause and effect © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 49 Research in Life-Span Development Time Span of Research • Cross-Sectional Approach— individuals of different ages are compared at one time • Longitudinal Approach—same individuals studied over period of time • Sequential Approach—combined cross-sectional, longitudinal design © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 50 Research in Life-Span Development Cohort Effects • Due to subject’s time of birth or generation, but not age © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 51 Research in Life-Span Development Parts of a Journal Article • • • • • • Abstract Introduction Method Results Discussion References © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Slide 52 Research in Life-Span Development Research Ethics • • • • Informed consent Confidentiality Debriefing Deception © 2005 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.