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Chapter Eleven Interpersonal Behavior ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Introduction Almost every working relationship will produce some degree of conflict across time. Whether conflicts are destructive (dysfunctional) or constructive (functional) depends on the attitudes and skills of participants. ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved The Nature of Conflict An interpersonal process that can arise from disagreement over almost anything • Managers spend about 20 percent of their time dealing with conflict • Lack of interpersonal skills can derail even the most promising career Levels of Conflict • Intrapersonal • Interpersonal • Intergroup ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Sources of Conflict Interpersonal conflict arises from: • Organizational change • Different sets of values • Threats to status • Contrasting perceptions • Lack of trust • Personality clashes • Incivility ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved A Model of Conflict Conflict varies in the: • Speed of its emergence • Degree of its predictability If conflict will be harmful, managers must apply a conflict resolution strategy to: • Prevent it • Diminish it • Remove it ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Conflict Outcomes ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Conflict Outcomes Conflict outcomes are a product of the participants’ intentions as well as their strategies Resolution Strategies • Avoiding • Smoothing • Forcing • Compromising • Confronting ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Only the confronting strategy is truly a resolution approach Conflict Resolution Preferences Research evidence suggests that: • Males and managers prefer the forcing approach • Females rely on other tactics, including collaboration • Employees prefer avoiding, smoothing, or compromising • Each party tends to mimic the style of the other • Confrontation is used in performance appraisals; compromise is used on issues involving personal habits and mannerisms ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Negotiating Tactics To resolve conflict in a win-win fashion: • Select a neutral site • Arrange seating in a comfortable fashion • Prohibit observers • Set deadlines to force a resolution • Set minimum and optimum goals in advance • Gather data thoroughly • Listen carefully • Focus on issues, not personalities • Separate facts from feelings • Search for areas where concessions are possible ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Assertive Behavior Assertiveness • Expressing feelings • Asking for legitimate changes • Giving and receiving honest feedback • Asking another to change an offensive behavior • Comfortably refusing unreasonable requests • Being direct, honest, and expressive • Feeling confident • Making others feel valued ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Power and Politics Power is the ability to influence other people and events. ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Types of Power Five Bases of Power • Personal power • Legitimate power • Expert power • Reward power • Coercive power ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Organizational Politics Political skill consists of: • Being socially astute • Having interpersonal influence • Creating useful networks • Expressing sincerity Pros and Cons • Can help attain promotion or sell proposal • Can gain personal visibility • Can be self-serving, manipulative, and deceivful ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Organizational Politics Many managers agree that… • Politics is common in most organizations • Managers must be good at politics to succeed • Politics becomes more important at higher levels • Politics can detract from organizational efficiency Traditional power sources no longer work • One can influence others through mutually beneficial exchanges ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Influence and Political Power Steps to increase your influence… • Treat the other party as a potential ally • Specify your objectives • Learn about other’s needs, interests, and goals • Inventory your own resources to identify something of value to offer • Assess your relationship with the other person • Decide what to ask for and what to offer • Make the actual exchange that produces a gain for both parties ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Tactics to Gain Political Power Networking Social exchange Form alliances Become identified with a higher authority Control information Give service selectively Acquire power and status symbols Grab power from others Join or form interest groups ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Tactics to Gain Political Power Political Power • Comes from support of key individuals/groups • Arises from the ability to work with people and social systems to gain allegiance and support Self-Monitors • High self-monitors are better at using organizational politics than are others • Low self-monitors are more insulated from social cues, behave as they wish, show less concern for making a positive impression ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Impression Management Protecting self image while intentionally affecting another’s assessment ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Impression Management Common Impression Management Strategies • Personal competence and high performance • Meeting commitments or solving a crisis • Sending positive nonverbal cues • Appropriate and/or edited self-disclosure • Self-promotion based on results, along with name dropping • Ingratiation activities • Exaggerating skills and achievements • Attributing one’s problems to others ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Chapter 12 - Types of Groups Formal • Established by the organization • Have a public identity and goal to achieve Informal • Emerge on the basis of common interests, proximity, and friendships Temporary • Committee or task force Permanent ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Nature of Informal Organizations An informal organization is a network of personal and social relations • Not established by the formal organization • Arises spontaneously • Tends to remain small in size • Can be internal or external to the organization Informal power attaches to a person • Formal power attaches to a position The formal manager and informal leader are usually two different persons ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Informal and Formal Group Differences Item General nature Informal Org. Unofficial Formal Org. Official Major concepts Power, politics Primary focus Person Authority, responsibility Position Leader power Given by group Delegated by mgmt Norms Rules and policies Sanctions Rewards, penalties Behavior guidelines Sources of control ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Informal Group Emergence Informal organizations emerge from within the formal structure This combination can have unexpected results • Employees act different than required • Employees interact with different people or with different frequency • Workers may embrace a different set of attitudes, beliefs, and sentiments than expected The combination of required and emergent behaviors makes it hard to predict employee performance and satisfaction ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Member Status and Informal Leaders Causes of informal status are infinite • The person with the largest amount of informal status becomes its informal leader The informal leader • Models and explains key norms • Helps build and sustain group cohesiveness • Uses the high esteem of this position to balance the additional responsibilities Informal groups often overlap • May be several leaders of varying importance ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Identifying and Rewarding Informal Leaders Informal leaders have distinct behaviors • Acting as spokesperson • Being the center of attention • Offering well-received wisdom and guidance Informal leadership can be a form of job enrichment • Provides variety in the workday • Offers feeling of greater significance • Satisfies social needs ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Identifying and Rewarding Informal Leaders One Primary Leader • Several persons may be informal leaders, but one is primary Cautions • An informal leader doesn’t always make the best formal leader • Informal leaders are typically rated as “quarrelsome” but not “sensible” ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Monitoring Informal Organizations Network Charts • Focuses on feelings expressed or behaviors exhibited ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Formal Groups Managers feel that time spent in group meetings is a significant time waster • A source of confusion and misinformation • An excuse for indecision Factors contributing to negative attitudes • Participants withhold their true feelings • Negative mindset that “meetings don’t work” • Missing or incomplete information • Meetings are poorly run • Viewed as end result, not means to an end ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Committees Specific type of group meeting in which members in their group role have the authority to handle the problem at hand • Usually one vote per member • Workers and supervisors are equals • Can be difficult to adjust from normal work roles and relationships ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Systems Factors to Consider Group size Composition Agendas (surface and hidden) • Critical to the success of a committee meeting Leadership roles (task and social) ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Effective Surface Agendas Agendas should: • Specify the date, time, and place of the meeting • Indicate a primary purpose for the meeting • List presenters and time allotted for presentation and discussion • Help the group focus on decisions • Have room for new items to be added • Address items in priority order • Identify the date, time, and place of the next meeting ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Facilitating Meetings Commonsense Practices • Consider who should be present, and when • Consider who does not need to be there • Select a good site for the meeting • Use technology • Give appropriate credit to those who participated, and drawing out those who didn’t • Use open questions • Balance serious discussions with fun • Summarize progress, identify unresolved issues, make assignments for the future ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Structured Approaches Brainstorming Nominal group technique Delphi decision making Dialectic decision methods Group decision support system ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Brainstorming Participant Guidelines • Generate as many ideas as possible • Be creative, freewheeling, and imaginative • Build upon, extend, or combine earlier ideas • Withhold criticism of others’ ideas Underlying Principles • Deferred judgment • Quantity breeds quality ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Nominal Group Technique Group exists in name only, with minimal member interaction • Members are brought together and given a problem • Solutions are developed independently • Ideas are shared in a structured format • Brief time is allotted for clarification questions • Members individually designate their solution preference via secret ballot • The group decision is announced ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Delphi Decision Making A panel of relevant people is chosen Questionnaires are sequentially distributed to the respondents, who do not meet face-to-face Written responses are summarized and fed back to members Participants make another decision based on the new information The process is repeated until responses converge satisfactorily ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Dialectic Decision Making ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Group Decision Support System Uses computers, decision models, and technological advances to: • Remove communication barriers • Structure the decision process • Direct the group’s discussion Pros and Cons • Higher quality decisions • Little known about effects on member satisfaction, participants’ sense of involvement, or balance of task and social roles needed ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Consensus: A Key Issue Is consensus necessary? • It may become the paramount goal • Frustrates members who have to keep discussing a subject long after their minds are made up • Situation is a waste of time and an embarrassment to dissenters • Can delay worthwhile projects unnecessarily Most employers do not expect unanimity for committee decisions ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Consensus: A Key Issue Ideas for Reaching Consensus • Conduct a straw poll • Suggest a supermajority vote • Ask members to withdraw controversial proposals or concerns, or stand aside to let the group proceed • Create a subgroup and empower it to make a decision • Distill concerns into major groups to pinpoint patterns of problems • Expedite closing of discussion via a “go around” ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Consensus: A Key Issue Facilitation Skills • Help the group attain success • Maximize efficient use of time • Help group feel satisfied with its efforts • Encourage separation of idea-getting from idea-evaluation • Generate multiple solutions • Avoid personal attacks • Attain balanced contributions from members • Piggyback on other’s ideas • Identify criteria for judging potential solutions ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Weaknesses of Committees Slowness and expensiveness Groupthink Polarization Escalating commitment Divided responsibility ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved Weaknesses of Committees Symptoms of Groupthink • Self-censorship of critical thoughts • Rationalization that what they are doing is acceptable to others • Illusion of invulnerability • Reliance on self-appointed mind-guards • Illusion of unanimity without testing for it • Stereotyping others outside the group • Illusion of morality • Pressure on dissidents to give in and conform ©2007 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., All Rights Reserved