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Theories & Models in Outdoor
Education
Educ 5165
Sometimes a tree grows
too fast.
It grows ahead of its roots.
You need to allow time for
the roots to take hold.
(Anonymous saying about “life”)
Objectives for Today
• Foundations of OE
• Definition of Experiential Education
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Foundations of Outdoor
Education
•Experiential Education
•Environmental Education
•Adventure Education
Which follow the parent disciplines of
•Education and Physical Education
• Psychology
• Philosophy
Paradigm
Construct
Concept
Facts
Experiential Education
Experiential education is a process
through which the learner constructs
knowledge, skill, and value from
direct experiences (AEE, 11/3/94)
Experiential Learning
Requisites (Dewey, 1938)
• Simple NOT Easy
• Highly Planned NOT Spontaneous
• Meaningful NOT Meaning-less (exp. For
sake of exp.)
• Authentic NOT Contrived
• Rooted in Empiricism NOT Laissez faire
• Constructs from Personal Meaning
• Individual MORE THAN Group
• Structured NOT Phenomenological
• Requires Judgement of Instructor NOT
Unguided
• Understanding Cause & Effect requires
REFLECTION
Essential Elements of Experiential
Education (Terwilliger, 1995)
• RELEVANCE: of the experience to the learner
• PROGRESSIVE: experiences build on past
knowledge & experiences
• AUTHENTIC:outcomes are concrete with real
consequences
COMBINED WITH THE OUTWARD BOUND
MODEL:
• CHALLENGING:important to stay w/in potential
ability
• REFLECTION:”processing” helps to shift from
Kolb, D.A. (1984). Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and
development.
Outdoor Education
“Outdoor Education is the blending of both
adventure and environmental approaches into
a program of activities or experiences.
Through exposure to the outdoor setting,
individuals learn about their relationship with
the natural environment, relationships
between the various concepts of natural
ecosystems, and personal relationships with
others and with their inner self.” (Priest, 1986)
Environmental Education
• Environmental education is learnng that
produces an environmentally responsible
citizenry (Hine, Hungerford & Tomera, 1987)
• “Environmental Education is a learning
process that increases people’s knowledge
and awareness about the environment and
associated challenges, develops the
necessary skills and expertise to address
these challenges, and fosters attitudes,
motivations, and commitments to make
informed decisions and take responsible
action” (UNESCO, 1978)
Approaches to Environmental
Education
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
Nature Appreciation
Wilderness Preservation
Earth Salvation
Environmental Issues Resolution
Species Protection
Environmental Ethics
Science Education outside
THE BELGRADE CHARTER
(Goal statement for environmental education from the 1975 UNESCO conference)
THE GOAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IS TO
DEVELOP A WORLD POPULATION THAT IS AWARE
OF, AND CONCERNED ABOUT, THE TOTAL
ENVIRONMENT AND ITS ASSOCIATED PROBLEMS,
AND WHICH HAS THE KNOWLEDGE, ATTITUDES,
SKILLS, MOTIVATION, AND COMMITMENT TO WORK
INDIVIDUALLY AND COLLECTIVELY TOWARD
SOLUTIONS OF CURRENT PROBLEMS AND THE
PREVENTION OF NEW ONES.
Compiled by the: United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
THE TBILISI DECLARATION
Taken from the First Intergovernmental Conference on Environmental Education,
Tbilisi, Georgia (1977)
Built from the Belgrade Charter Goals of Environmental Education:
• TO FOSTER CLEAR AWARENESS OF, AND CONCERN ABOUT,
ECONOMIC, SOCIAL, POLITICAL, AND ECOLOGICAL
INTERDEPENDENCE IN URBAN AND RURAL AREAS;
•TO PROVIDE EVERY PERSON WITH OPPORTUNITIES TO ACQUIRE
THE KNOWLEDGE, VALUES, ATTITUDES, COMMITMENT, AND
SKILLS NEEDED TO PROTECT AND IMPROVE THE ENVIRONMENT;
AND
•TO CREATE NEW PATTERNS OF BEHAVIOR OF INDIVIDUALS,
GROUPS, AND SOCIETY AS A WHOLE TOWARDS THE
ENVIRONMENT
A GREENPRINT FOR MINNESOTA
(MOEE,1993)
MINNESOTA’S GOALS FOR ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION:
• TO UNDERSTAND ECOLOGICAL
SYSTEMS;
• TO UNDERSTAND THE CAUSE AND
EFFECT RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN
HUMAN ATTITUDES AND BEHAVIOR AND
THE ENVIRONMENT;
• TO BE ABLE TO ANALYZE, DEVELOP, AND USE PROBLEMSOLVING SKILLS TO UNDERSTAND THE DECISION-MAKING
PROCESS OF INDIVIDUALS, INSTITUTIONS, AND NATIONS
REGARDING ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES;
• TO BE ABLE TO EVALUATE ALTERNATIVE RESPONSES TO
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES BEFORE DECIDING ON
ALTERNATIVE COURSES OF ACTION;
• TO UNDERSTAND THE POTENTIAL COMPLEMENTARY
NATURE OF MULTIPLE USES OF THE ENVIRONMENT;
• TO PROVIDE EXPERIENCES TO ASSIST CITIZENS TO
INCREASE THEIR SENSITIVITY AND STEWARDSHIP FOR
THE ENVIRONMENT;
• TO PROVIDE INFORMATION CITIZENS NEED TO MAKE
INFORMED DECISIONS ABOUT ACTIONS TO TAKE ON
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES.
Interpretation
• “An educational activity which aims to
reveal meanings and relationships
through the use of original objects, by
firsthand experience, and by illustrative
media, rather than simply to
communicate factual information.” (Tilden,
1957, p. 8)
Six Principles of Interpretation
(Freeman Tilden, 1957, p9)
• If it doesn’t relate, it is sterile
• Information is not interpretation. (Rather,
it is revelation based upon information.)
• Interpretation is an art. (Any art is teachable)
• The chief aim is provocation (not instruction)
• It should present a whole.
• It should be age appropriate (not a “dilution” of
adult material.)
Adventure Education
• A variety of self-initiated activities
utilizing an interaction with the natural
environment, that contain elements of
real or apparent danger, in which the
outcome, while uncertain, can be
influenced by the participant and the
circumstance.” (Ewert, 1989, p.6)
A Model of
Outdoor
Education
Direct Experience
*Environmental
Education
(Formal)
*Interpretation
(Non-formal)
Ecological
Relationships
Ecotourism
Physical
Skills
Interpersonal Growth
or
Educational Skills
Adventure Education
Learning Theory
•
•
•
•
Constructivism (Wals, 1987)
Concept Mapping (Novak, 1977; Bosquet, 1981)
Personal Meaning (Ausubel, 1963)
Brain Based (Whole Brain) Learning (Hart,
1983)
• Native American Learning Styles (Reyes,
1989)
• Cooperative Learning (Johnson & Johnson)
Multiple Intelligence (Gardner, H.,1983)
Essential Elements of Constructivism
(Terwilliger, 1995)
• PRECONCEPTIONS MATTER
• RELEVANCE (PERSONAL MEANING)
• CONCEPTUAL LEARNING (V. FACTUAL)
• COGNITIVE DISSONANCE (FOLLOWED BY
RESTRUCTURE:FREEZE-THAW-REFREEZE)
• SUPPORTIVE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT
(PHYSICAL & PSYCHOLOGICAL SAFETY:
MASLOW)
• ABILITY TO GENERATE, CREATE,
PRODUCE, EXHIBIT, DEMONSTRATE
Constructivist Teaching Sequence
(Driver & Oldham, 1986)
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•
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•
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Orientation (motivation)
Elicitation (awareness)
Restructuring (conflict, alternatives)
Application (consolidation, reinforcement)
Review = reflection (learn about learning)
Native American Learning
(Reyes, 1989)
• Use family instructional techniques:
Demonstration & imitation
• Let children learn from children
• Teach through stories and legends
• Utilize visual skills (observation, visual
discrimination, and spatial configuration)
• Employ active learning strategies
• Advance holistic intuitive learning
(process information from whole to part to understand
unity in the large situation)
Indian Learning Styles
(Banks, J. & Banks, C. (1995). Handbook of research on multicultural education. Macmillon. Pp
490-491.
• Field dependent/independent learning
styles are unreliable, espec. group
specific.
• Yet, the research literature overview
concludes similarly to Native American,
Hispanic & African American that these
groups tend to be field dependent in
their learning styles.
Indian Learning Styles
(summary)
• Prefer visual, spatial, and perceptual
information rather than verbal.
• Learn privately rather than in public.
• Use mental images to remember and
understand words and concepts rather
than word associations.
• Watch and then do rather than employ
trial and error.
• Have well-formed spatial ability.
• Learn best from non-verbal
mechanisms.
• Learn experientially & in natural settings
• Have a generalist orientation, interest in
people & things
• Value conciseness of speech, slightly
varied intonation, & limited vocal range.
• Prefer small-group work.
• Favor wholistic presentations and visual
representations.
ADULTLEARNERS:
•ADULTSHAVEARICHBACKGROUNDOF
EXPERIENCE
•ADULTSLEARNBESTWHENTHEYARE
PHYSICALLYANDPSYCHOLOGICALLY
COMFORTABLE
•ADULTSSEEMTOBEBETTERMOTIVATEDTO
LEARNWHENTHEYBECOMEACTIVELY
INVOLVEDINTHELEARNINGPROCESS
(ROBINSON, 1995)
What is the outcome of in-service training?
In-service can deal with these:
Action Skills
Situational
Factors
Knowledge of
Action Strategies
Knowledge of
Issues
Intention to Act?
Responsible
Environmental
Behavior
Attitudes
Locus of Control
Personality
Factors
Personal Responsibility
Model of Responsible Behavior
(Hines, et al., 1986)
Figure 2. A Theory of Planned Behavior. (Ajzen, 1980)
Vocational Studies
Physical Education
Life Sciences
Earth Sciences
EE
Social Studies
Mathematics
Arts, Humanities
Communications
The Multi-disciplinary (Infusion) Model (Hungerford & Peyton, 1981)
Vocational Studies
Physical Education
Life Sciences
Earth Sciences
EE
Social Studies
Mathematics
Arts, Humanities
Communications
The Inter-disciplinary (Insertion or Mono-disciplinary)
Model (Hungerford & Peyton, 1981)
Developmental Stages of
Environmental Literacy
• Survival
• Skills’ Acquisition
• Relationships with the land and its
inhabitants
• Metaphysical feeling “connected” to
the place; A feeling of harmony
Learning Stages in Teaching
Environmental Literacy
•
•
•
•
SENSORY AWARENESS
SKILLS’ DEVELOPMENT & TRAINING
RELATIONSHIPS (ECOLOGICAL)
ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES
AWARENESS
• ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES ACTION
Six Principles of Interpretation
(Tilden, F., 1957. p. 9)
• I. ANY INTERPRETATION THAT
DOES NOT SOMEHOW RELATE
WHAT IS BEING DISPLAYED OR
DESCRIBED TO SOMETHING WITHIN
THE PERSONALITY OR
EXPERIENCE OF THE VISITOR WILL
BE STERILE.
• II. INFORMATION, AS SUCH, IS NOT
INTERPRETATION.
INTERPRETATION IS REVELATION
BASED UPON INFORMATION.
• III. INTERPRETATION IS AN ART,
WHICH COMBINES MANY ARTS,
WHETHER THE MATERIALS
PRESENTED ARE SCIENTIFIC,
HISTORICAL, OR ARCHITECTURAL.
ANY ART IS IN SOME DEGREE
TEACHABLE.
• IV.The Chief aim of Interpretation is not
instruction but provocation.
• V. INTERPRETATION SHOULD AIM
TO PRESENT A WHOLE RATHER
THAN A PART, AND MUST ADDRESS
ITSELF TO THE WHOLE MAN (SIC)
RATHER THAN ANY PHASE.
• VI. INTERPRETATION ADDRESSED
TO CHILDREN SHOULD NOT BE
DILUTION OF THE PRESENTATION
TO ADULTS, BUT SHOULD FOLLOW
A FUNDAMENTALLY DIFFERENT
APPROACH.
The Outward Bound Process
I. The Learner
Motivated - State of readiness
II. Unique Physical Environment
The use of a novel environment to
promote self awareness/ self growth
III. Unique Social Environment
Placing people with different
backgrounds and abilities together to
work toward a common goal creates an
interdependence.
IV. Presentation of a Characteristic Set of
Problems which Facilitate Mastery
A. Prescriptive & Organized
B. Progressive
C. Concrete
D. Manageable
E. Consequential
Every activity has a risk of some sort
F. Holistic
Involves emotional, mental, and
physical components.
V. Adaptive Dissonance, Mastery, and
Attendant Reconstruction
(Anxiety, Mastery, and Reconstruction)
VI. Summary
Golins, G., Walsh, V. (1975)
The Outdoor Adventure Pursuits Mix
PEOPLE
•MOTIVATIONS
•SKILLS
•SOCIAL ORIENTATION
•PREFERENCE
OPPORTUNITIES
•SETTINGS
•PROGRAMS
•SUPPORT FACTORS
•ACTIVITIES
REWARDS
•Psychological
•SOCIOLOGICAL
•EDUCATIONAL
•PHYSICAL
Influencing Factors on the Outcome of a Risk Activity
Unforeseen
beneficial
circumstances
Proper
training
Incorrect decision
making
Outcome
greater
control
Personal
abilities
Correct decision
making
loss of
control
Personal
inability's
Poor
training
Unforeseen
detrimental
circumstances
FEAR MODIFICATION TECHNIQUES
Technique
Definition
Comments
•Systematic
desensitization
•Gradual exposure •Useful, time-consuming
to source
•Flooding
•Prolonged exposure•Often inappropriate,
to fear
can be debilitating
•Modeling
•Learning new coping•Powerful, can use
methods
instructor behavior
•Rehearsal
•Practicing different •Very useful but
adaptive behaviors requires
preplanning
Attitude-Behavior Model (Fishbein & Ajzen, 1975)
Beliefs
about
activity
Intentions
toward
activity
Attitude
about
activity
Behavior
with
activity