Download Ch 13 MT and Ch11 BS Endocrine System

Chapter 13 Medical Terminology
and
Body Structures Chapter 11
The Endocrine System
The Endocrine
System
Function of the Endocrine system
is to produce hormones.
2
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Mechanisms of Hormone Action


3
Endocrine glands secrete
chemicals (hormones) into
the blood
Hormones perform general
functions of communication
and control but a slower,
longer-lasting type of control
than that provided by nerve
impulses
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Mechanisms of Hormone Action



4
Cells acted on by hormones
are called target organ
cells
Non-steroid hormones
(first messenger) bind to
receptors on the target cell
membrane, triggering
second messengers to affect
the cell’s activities
Steroid hormones bind to
receptors within the target
cell nucleus and influence
cell activity by acting on
DNA
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Regulation of Hormone Secretion


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Hormone secretion is
controlled by homeostatic
feedback
Negative feedback —
mechanisms that reverse
the direction of a change in
a physiologic system
Positive feedback —
(uncommon) mechanisms
that amplify physiologic
changes
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Prostaglandins (tissue hormones)


6
Prostaglandins (PGs) are powerful
substances found in a wide variety of body
tissues
PGs are often produced in a tissue and
diffuse only a short distance to act on cells in
that tissue
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Prostaglandins
Several classes of PGs include prostaglandin A (PGA),
prostaglandin E (PGE), and prostaglandin F (PGF)
 PGs influence many body functions, including
respiration, blood pressure, gastrointestinal
secretions, and reproduction
7
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Medical Specialties & Pathology
Related to the Endocrine System

Endocrinologist
(Physician who
specializes in diseases of
the endocrine system)


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8
Hypercrinism (Excessive
secretion of any gland
especially an endocrine
gland)
Hypocrinism (Deficient
secretion of any gland
especially an endocrine
gland)
Endocrinopathy (Disease
to the disorder of the
endocrine system)
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Diagnostic Procedures Related to the
Endocrine System


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9
Nuclear Medicine
Imaging Techniques
Hormone levels are measured in the blood
and/or urine
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The Endocrine System
10
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Figure 18.1
Adrenal Glands (2)


Primary Functions
Regulate electrolyte levels.
–
–
–
–

Related Combining Form
–
11
Influence metabolism.
Respond to stress.
Located on top of each kidney
Consists of the adrenal cortex & adrenal medulla
adren/o
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Adrenal Glands


12
Produce anti-immunity, antiallergy effect; bring about a
decrease in the number of
lymphocytes and plasma cells
and therefore a decrease in the
amount of antibodies formed
Secretion of glucocorticoid
quickly increases when the
body is thrown into a condition
of stress; high blood
concentration of
glucocorticoids, in turn, brings
about many other stress
responses
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Functions of Glucocorticoids
–
–
–
13
Help maintain normal blood glucose concentration by
increasing gluconeogenesis —the formation of “new”
glucose from amino acids produced by the breakdown of
proteins, mainly those in muscle tissue cells
The conversion to glucose of fatty acids produced by the
breakdown of fats stored in adipose tissue cells play an
essential part in maintaining normal blood pressure—make
it possible for epinephrine and norepinephrine to maintain a
normal degree of vasoconstriction, a condition necessary
for maintaining normal blood pressure
Act with epinephrine and norepinephrine to produce an antiinflammatory effect, to bring about normal recovery from
inflammation of various kinds
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Functions of Glucocorticoids


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Produce anti-immunity, anti-allergy effect; bring
about a decrease in the number of lymphocytes and
plasma cells and therefore a decrease in the amount
of antibodies formed
Secretion of glucocorticoid quickly increases when
the body is thrown into a condition of stress; high
blood concentration of glucocorticoids, in turn, brings
about many other stress responses
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Adrenal Cortex

Names of hormones
(corticoids)

Glucocorticoids (GCs)—
chiefly cortisol (hydrocortisone)
Mineralocorticoids (MCs) —
chiefly aldosterone. Increase
blood sodium and decrease
body potassium concentrations
by accelerating kidney tubule
reabsorption of sodium and
excretion of potassium
Sex hormones —small
amounts of male hormones
(androgens) secreted by
adrenal cortex of both sexes


15

Three cell layers
(zones)
–
–
–
Outer layer, secretes
mineralocorticoids
Middle layer, secretes
glucocorticoids
Inner layer, secretes sex
hormones
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Adrenal Medulla
16
–
Names of hormones—epinephrine (adrenaline)
and norepinephrine
–
Functions of hormones—help the body resist
stress by intensifying and prolonging the effects of
sympathetic stimulation; increased epinephrine
secretion is the first endocrine response to stress
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Secretions of the Adrenal Cortex &
Adrenal Medulla

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Mineralcorticoids
(regulates mineral salts in
the body)
Glucocrticoids (regulates
the metabolism of
carbohydrates, fats and
proteins)
Gonadocorticoids
(hormones that influence
sex-related
characteristics)

Adrenal medulla secretion

Epinephrine (adrenaline)
Norepinephrine

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Pathology of the Adrenal Glands
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18
Adrenalitis

Addison’s Disease (insufficient hormone
production. Characterized by pain, fatigue,
weight loss)
Aldosteronism (abnormal electrolyte balance

caused by excessive aldosterone)
Primary hyperaldosteronism: Conn's
syndrome is a disease of the adrenal glands
involving excess production of a hormone,
called aldosterone. Another name for the
condition is primary hyperaldosteronism.
Secondary aldosteronism is increased
adrenal production of aldosterone in response
to nonpituitary, extra-adrenal stimuli, including
renal artery stenosis and hypovolemia.
Symptoms are those of primary
aldosteronism. Treatment involves correcting
the cause.
Pheochromocytoma
(benign tumor of the adrenal
medulla)
Cushing’s Syndrome
(hypercortisolism/hyperadrenalism) Caused by
prolonged exposure to high
levels of cortisol. “Moon
face”
Adrenal Cancer
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Overview
Adrenal cancer is a rare disease that originates in the adrenal glands. The
adrenal glands are located on top of the kidneys and consist of two parts that
function separately: the outer layer (cortex) and the inner area (medulla).
The cortex produces three major hormones: cortisol (a glucocorticoid),
aldosterone (a mineralocorticoid), and dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA; an
androgen). The medulla produces epinephrine (adrenaline), norepinephrine,
and dopamine.
Adrenal tumors can increase hormone production (called functioning tumors).
Adrenal tumors that do not produce hormones are called nonfunctioning.
Symptoms of adrenal cancer and treatment for the condition depend on
whether the tumor is functioning or nonfunctioning, and on which hormone is
being overproduced.
Types
Most (99%) adrenal tumors are noncancerous (i.e., benign) adrenal cortical
adenomas and do not require treatment. These tumors usually do not cause
symptoms, are small, and are found incidentally during diagnostic imaging.
(metastasize) to the adrenal glands.
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The most common type of adrenal cancer develops in the adrenal cortex and
is called adrenocortical carcinoma. Functioning adrenocortical carcinomas
may produce symptoms related to increased hormone production.
Nonfunctioning tumors may cause pain from pressure on abdominal organs
and a mass in the abdomen that is able to be felt with the fingers (palpable).
Cancers that develop in the adrenal medulla include neuroblastoma
(originates in undeveloped nerve cells) and pheochromocytoma (originates
in cells that produce epinephrine and norephinephrine). Neuroblastoma
usually occurs in infants and children and pheochromocytoma more
commonly occurs in people who are in their 30s and 40s.
Other types of cancer (e.g., breast, lung) may spread
20
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Adrenal Cancer
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Types
Most (99%) adrenal tumors are noncancerous (i.e., benign)
adrenal cortical adenomas and do not require treatment. These
tumors usually do not cause symptoms, are small, and are
found incidentally during diagnostic imaging.
The most common type of adrenal cancer develops in the
adrenal cortex and is called adrenocortical carcinoma.
Functioning adrenocortical carcinomas may produce symptoms
related to increased hormone production.
Nonfunctioning tumors may cause pain from pressure on
abdominal organs and a mass in the abdomen that is able to be
felt with the fingers (palpable).
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


Cancers that develop in the adrenal medulla include
neuroblastoma (originates in undeveloped nerve cells) and
pheochromocytoma (originates in cells that produce
epinephrine and norephinephrine). Neuroblastoma usually
occurs in infants and children and pheochromocytoma more
commonly occurs in people who are in their 30s and 40s.
Other types of cancer (e.g., breast, lung) may spread
(metastasize) to the adrenal glands.
Source: http://www.urologychannel.com/adrenalcancer
Adrenal Cancer
22
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Treatment Procedures of the Adrenal
Glands
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Laparoscopic adrenalectomy
Hydrocortisone (immunosuppressant,
suppress inflammation)
Epinephrine (vasoconstrictor causes the
blood vessels to contract)
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adrenalectomy
Laparoscopic adrenalectomy
Adrenal gland
24
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Hypothalamus


25
Actual production of ADH
and oxytocin occurs in the
hypothalamus
After production in the
hypothalamus, hormones
pass along axons into the
pituitary gland


The secretion and
release of posterior
pituitary hormones are
controlled by nervous
stimulation
The hypothalamus
controls many body
functions related to
homeostasis
(temperature,
appetite,
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and thirst)
RESERVED.
Pancreatic Islets

Primary Functions
–

Related Combining Form
–
26
Control blood sugar levels and glucose metabolism.
pancreat/o
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Pancreatic Islets

Functions of hormones
–
–
27
Glucagon increases the
blood glucose level by
accelerating liver
glycogenolysis (conversion
of glycogen to glucose)
Insulin decreases the
blood glucose by
accelerating the movement
of glucose out of the blood
into cells, which increases
glucose metabolism by
cells

Names of hormones
–
–
Glucagon —secreted by
alpha cells
Insulin —secreted by beta
cells
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Pathology of the Pancreas
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Hyperglycemia
Polydipsia (excessive
thirst)
Polyphagia (exccessive
hunger)
Polyuria (excessive
urination)
Hyperinsulinism
(excessive insulin
secretion




Hypoglycemia
Insulinoma (benign
tumor of the pancreas
caused by
hypoglycemia)
Pancreatalgia (pain in
the pancreas)
Pancreatitis
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Diabetes
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Diabetes mellitis (a group of metabolic
disorders characterized by hyperglycemia)
Type 1 Diabetes (insulin-dependant diabetes
or juvenile diabetes)
Type 2 Diabetes (non-insulin diabetes)
Gestational Diabetes
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Diabetes Diagnostic
Procedures/Emergencies/Complications
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Diagnostic Procedures
Fasting Blood Sugar
Oral Glucose Tolerance
Test
Home blood glucose
monitoring
Fructosamine test
(measures average glucose
level over three weeks)
Hemoglobin
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Emergencies
Insulin Shock
Diabetic Coma
Complications
Heart Disease
Kidney Disease
Neuropathy
Diabetes Retinopathy
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Pineal Gland (1)

Primary Function
–

Related Combining Form
–
33
Influences the sleep-wakefulness cycle.
pineal/o
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Pineal Gland

A small gland near the roof
of the third ventricle of the
brain
–
–
Glandular tissue
predominates in children
and young adults
Becomes fibrous and
calcified with age

Called third eye because its
influence on secretory
activity is related to the
amount of light entering the
eyes

Secretes melatonin, which:
–
–
34
Inhibits ovarian activity
Regulates the body’s
internal clock
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Pathology & Treatment of the Pineal Gland


35
Pinealopathy
Pinealectomy
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Pituitary Gland (hypophysis)

Primary Function
–

Related Combining
Forms
–
36
Secretes hormones that
control the activity of the
other endocrine glands.
pituit/o, pituitar/o
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Pituitary Gland (Located at the base of
the brain. Divided into lobes)

Anterior pituitary gland
(adenohypophysis)

Names of major
hormones
–
–
–
–
–
–
37
Thyroid-stimulating
hormone (TSH)
Adrenocorticotropic
hormone (ACTH)
Follicle-stimulating
hormone (FSH)
Luteinizing hormone
(LH)
Growth hormone (GH)
Prolactin hormone (PH)
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Pituitary Gland-Functions of major hormones


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38
TSH —stimulates growth of the
thyroid gland; also stimulates it to
secrete thyroid hormone (trophic
hormone transmitter production)
ACTH —stimulates growth of the
adrenal cortex and stimulates it to
secrete glucocorticoids
FSH —initiates growth of ovarian
follicles each month in the ovary
and stimulates one or more follicles
to develop to the stage of maturity
and ovulation;

FSH also stimulates estrogen
secretion by developing follicles;
stimulates sperm production in
the male

LH —acts with FSH to stimulate
estrogen secretion and follicle
growth to maturity; causes
ovulation; causes luteinization
of the ruptured follicle and
stimulates progesterone
secretion by corpus luteum;
causes interstitial cells in the
testes to secrete testosterone in
the male
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GH —stimulates growth by accelerating
protein anabolism; also accelerates fat
catabolism and slows glucose catabolism;
by slowing glucose catabolism, tends to
increase blood glucose to higher than
normal level (hyperglycemia)
Prolactin or lactogenic hormone —
stimulates breast development during
pregnancy and secretion of milk after the
delivery of the baby
39
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Posterior Pituitary Gland

Posterior pituitary gland
(neurohypophysis)
–
–
Functions of hormones

Names of hormones


Antidiuretic hormone
(ADH) (Vasopressin)
Oxytocin

40
ADH —accelerates
water absorption from
urine in the kidney
tubules into the blood,
thereby decreasing
urine secretion
Oxytocin —stimulates
the pregnant uterus to
contract; may initiate
labor; causes glandular
cells of the breast to
release milk into ducts
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Pathology of the Pituitary Gland
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Acromegaly
Gigantism
Hyperpituitarism
Hypopituitarism
Puitarism
Pituitary Adenoma
Prolactin-producing
adenoma
Diabetes Insipidus
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Treatment Procedures of the Pituitary
Gland
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42
Human Growth
Hormone Therapy
(recombinant GH)
Synthetic version of the
growth hormone.
Administered to
stimulate growth when
the natural supply of
the hormone is
insufficient.
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Thyroid Gland (1)

Primary Functions
–

Related Combining
Forms
–
43
Stimulates metabolism,
growth, and the activity
of the nervous system.
thyr/o, thyroid/o
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Thyroid Gland

44
Names of hormones (secretions)
–
Thyroid hormone —thyroxine (T4) and
triiodothyronine (T3)
–
Calcitonin —decreases the blood calcium
concentration by inhibiting breakdown of bone,
which would release calcium into the blood
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Pathology of the Thyroid Gland
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Hashimoto’s (the
immune system attacks
thyroid tissue)
Hypothroidism
Cretinism (congenital
hypothyroidism)
Myxedema (severe
form of adult
hypothyroidism)


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

Hyperthyroidism
Thyrotoxicosis
(excessive release of
thyroid hormones)
Grave’s disease
(autoimmune
hyperthyroidism)
Goiter
Exopthalmos
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46
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Diagnostic & Treatment Procedures
Related to the Thyroid Gland
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47
Thyroid Scan (Nuclear
Medicine)
Antithyroid Drug
(slows the thyroid)
Lobectomy (removal of
one of the four thyroid
lobes)
Synthetic thyroid
hormones (given for
lost thyroid function)
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48
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Thyroid Cancer
49

There are over 11,000 new cases of thyroid cancer each year in the United
States. Females are more likely to have thyroid cancer at a ratio of three to
one. Thyroid cancer can occur in any age group, although it is most common
after age 30 and its aggressiveness increases significantly in older patients.
The majority of patients present with a nodule on their thyroid which typically
does not cause symptoms.

Occasionally, symptoms such as hoarseness, neck pain, and enlarged lymph
nodes do occur. Although as much as 10 % of the population will have thyroid
nodules, the vast majority are benign. Only approximately 5% of all thyroid
nodules are malignant. A nodule which is cold on scan (shown in photo outlined
in red and yellow) is more likely to be malignant, nevertheless, the majority of
these are benign as well.
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Thyroid Cancer Type and Incidence

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50
Papillary and mixed papillary/follicular ~
78%
Follicular and Hurthle cell ~ 15%
Medullary ~ 5%
Anaplastic ~ 2%
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Radioactive
RESERVED.
of the thyroid
What's the Prognosis ??

51
Most thyroid cancers are very curable. In fact, the
most common types of thyroid cancer (papillary and
follicular) are the most curable. In younger patients,
both papillary and follicular cancers can be expected
to have better than 95% cure rate if treated
appropriately. Both papillary and follicular cancers
are typically treated with complete removal of the
lobe of the thyroid which harbors the cancer, PLUS,
removal of most or all of the other side. The bottom
line, most thyroid cancers are papillary thyroid
cancer, and this is one of the most curable cancers
of ALL cancers that humans get.
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Medullary Cancer

52
Medullary cancer of the thyroid is significantly less
common, but has a worse prognosis. Medullary
cancers tend to spread to large numbers of lymph
nodes very early on, and therefore requires a much
more aggressive operation than does the more
localized cancers such as papillary and follicular.
This cancer requires complete thyroid removal PLUS
a dissection to remove the lymph nodes of the front
and sides of the neck.
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Anaplastic

53
The least common type of thyroid cancer is
anaplastic which has a very poor prognosis...it tends
to be found after it has spread and is not cured in
most cases. Often an operation cannot remove all
the tumor. These patients often require a
tracheostomy during the treatment, and treatment is
much more aggressive than for other types of thyroid
cancer--because this cancer is much more
aggressive.
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Thymus (1)

Primary Function
–

Related Combining Form
–
54
Plays a major role in the immune reaction.
thym/o
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Thymus

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55
Name of hormone—
thymosin
Function of hormone—
plays an important role
in the development and
function of the body’s
immune system
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Pathology & Treatment of the Thymus


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56
Thymitis
Thymoma
Thymectomy
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Parathyroid Glands (4)

Primary Function
–

Related Combining
Form
–
57
Regulate calcium levels
throughout the body.
parathyroid/o
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Parathyroid Gland


58
Name of hormone —
parathyroid hormone
(PTH)
Function of hormone —
increases blood
calcium concentration
by increasing the
breakdown of bone with
the release of calcium
into the blood
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Pathology of the Parathyroid Glands
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Hypoparathyroidism
Hypocalcemia
Tetany (painful muscle spasms)
Treatment of a diseased parathyroid gland(s)
usually involves surgical treatment
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Gonads *

Primary Function
–

Regulate development and maintenance of
secondary sex characteristics.
Related Combining Form
–
gonad/o
*Males: testicles (2)
*Females: ovaries (2)
60
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Female Sex Glands


The ovaries contain two structures that
secrete hormones—the ovarian follicles and
the corpus luteum
Effects of estrogen (feminizing hormone)
–
–
–
61
Development and maturation of breasts and
external genitals
Development of adult female body contours
Initiation of menstrual cycle
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Pathology of the Gonads
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
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62
Hypergonadism (excessive secretion of
hormones)
Hypogonadism
Gynecomastia
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Male Sex Glands


The interstitial cells of the testes secrete the
male hormone testosterone
Effects of testosterone (masculinizing
hormone)
–
–
–
–
63
Maturation of external genitals
Beard growth
Voice changes at puberty
Development of musculature and body contours
typical of the male
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Placenta
64

Name of hormones—chorionic
gonadotropins, estrogens, and progesterone

Functions of hormones—maintain the corpus
luteum during pregnancy
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Other Endocrine Structures



65
Many organs (for example, the stomach,
intestines, and kidneys) produce endocrine
hormones
The atrial wall of the heart secretes atrial
natriuretic hormone (ANH), which stimulates
sodium loss from the kidneys
Fat-storing cells secrete leptin, which
controls how full or hungry we feel
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The End
66
Copyright © 2005 by Thomson
Delmar Learning. ALL RIGHTS
RESERVED.