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Psychological Disorders
Chapter 15
Copyright © 2005 Pearson Education Inc
What Is Abnormal Behaviour?
 Abnormal behaviour is characterized
as not typical, socially unacceptable,
distressing to the person who exhibits
it or to the person’s friends and family,
maladaptive, and the result of
disorganized conditions
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Perspectives on Abnormality
 Practitioners turn to models to explain
the causes of abnormal behaviour
 A model is an analogy that helps
discover relationships among data
 Models of maladjustment form the basis
of abnormal psychology, the field of
psychology concerned with
assessment, treatment and prevention
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The Medical-Biological Model
 The medical-biological model focuses
on the physiological conditions that
initiate and underlie abnormal behaviour
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The Psychodynamic Model
 The psychodynamic model is rooted in
Freud’s theory of personality
 It assumes psychological disorders
result from anxiety produced by
unresolved conflicts outside a person’s
awareness
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The Humanistic Model

The humanistic model focuses on individual
uniqueness and decision making

Maladjustment occurs when a person’s needs
are not met
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The Behavioural Model
 The behavioural model states that
abnormal behaviour is learned through
selective reinforcement and
punishment
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The Cognitive Model
 The cognitive model asserts that
human beings engage in both
prosocial and maladjusted behaviours
because of their thoughts
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The Sociocultural Model
 According to the sociocultural model,
maladjustment occurs within and
because of a context
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The Evolutionary Model
 The evolutionary model says humans
evolved in a specific environment
 Maladjustments may be expressions of
behaviour that would once have been
normal in evolutionary history
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Which Model Is Best?
 Some psychologists use only one
model to analyze all behaviour
problems
 Others may take an eclectic approach
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Diagnosing Psychopathology:
The DSM
 The American Psychiatric Association
has devised a system for diagnosing
maladjusted behaviour, the Diagnostic
and Statistical Manual of Mental
Disorders (DSM)
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Table 15.1 Major Classifications of the Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fourth Edition (TR)
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Diversity and Diagnoses
 DSM instructs clinicians to become
more sensitive to issues of diversity
and examples of syndromes specific to
various cultures
 Research shows that the likelihood of a
specific diagnosis is related to ethnicity
and culture
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Defining Anxiety
 Anxiety
is a generalized feeling of fear
and apprehension that may be related
to a particular situation or object often
accompanied by increased
physiological arousal
 Karen Horney considered anxiety a
motivating force while Freud saw
anxiety as the result of conflict between
the id, ego and superego
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Generalized Anxiety Disorder
 A person
with generalized anxiety
disorder feels almost continuous anxiety
for six months, increased activity of the
autonomic nervous system, difficulty
concentrating, and fatigue
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Phobic Disorders
 Phobic
disorder is an excessive
irrational fear and avoidance of specific
objects or situations
 People with phobic disorders exhibit
avoidance and escape behaviours
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Agoraphobia
 Agoraphobia
involves a marked fear
and avoidance of being alone in a place
from which escape may be difficult or
embarrassing
 Symptoms include hyperventilation,
extreme tension, and cognitive
disorganization
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Social Phobia
 Social
phobia is anxiety involving a fear
of and a desire to avoid situations
where one might be scrutinized by
others
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Specific Phobias
 A specific
phobia involves irrational and
persistent fear of a particular object or
situation
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Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder
 Obsessive-compulsive
disorder involves
persistent, uncontrollable thoughts and
irrational beliefs that cause compulsive
rituals that interfere with daily life
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Depressive Disorders
 In
depressive disorders, people show
extreme and persistent sadness
 Major depressive disorder is
characterized by loss of interest in
almost all of life’s usual activities
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Symptoms of Major Depressive
Disorder

Symptoms of major depressive disorder
include:

Poor appetite

Insomnia

Weight loss

Loss of energy

Feelings of worthlessness and guilt

Inability to concentrate
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Major Depressive Disorder:
Onset and Duration
 Most
people who experience major
depressive disorder undergo the first
episode prior to age 40
 Symptoms are readily apparent and
may last for days, weeks, or months
 Episodes of major depression may
occur once or many times
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Major Depressive Disorder:
Prevalence
 Major
depressive disorder affects about
1.3 million Canadians each year
 Women are twice as likely to be
diagnosed and express their feelings
openly
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Major Depressive Disorder: Clinical
Evaluation
 Diagnosis
•
•
•
of depression (or any other
mental disorder) should involve a
complete clinical evaluation:
A physical examination
A psychiatric history
A mental status examination
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Causes of Major Depressive
Disorder
 Biological
theories imply both genetics
and neurotransmitters may underlie
depression
 Monoamine theory suggests that
depression results from deficiencies of
monoamines or inefficient receptors
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Learning and Cognitive Theories
 Lewinsohn
feels that people who fail to
receive reinforcement are deprived of
pleasure
 Beck says depressed people have
negative views of themselves, the
environment and the future
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Figure 15.2 Lewinsohn’s View of Depression
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Learned Helplessness

Learned helplessness is the behaviour of
giving up or not responding exhibited by
people and animals exposed to negative
consequences over which the feel they have
no control

Seligman suggests that people’s beliefs about
the causes of failure determines whether they
will become depressed
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The Biopsychosocial Model
is a person’s diminished
ability to deal with life events
 The more vulnerable the person, the
less stress or anxiety is needed to
initiate depression
 The link between vulnerability and
stress is called diathesis-stress model
 Vulnerability
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Bipolar Disorder
 Bipolar
disorder was originally known as
manic-depressive disorder
 People with the disorder experience
behaviour varying between two
extremes
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Bipolar Disorder
 The
manic phase involves rapid speech,
inflated self-esteem, impulsiveness,
euphoria, and decreased need for sleep
 In the depressed phase, the person is
moody and sad, with feelings of
hopelessness
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Dissociative Disorders
 Dissociative
disorders are characterized
by a sudden, temporary, alteration in
consciousness, identity, behaviour,
and/or memory
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Dissociative Amnesia
 Dissociative
amnesia involves a sudden
and extensive inability to recall
important personal information
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Dissociative Identity Disorder
 Dissociative
identity disorder is more
commonly known as multiple personality
and involves the existence within an
individual of two more distinct
personalities each dominant at different
times
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Schizophrenia
 Schizophrenic
disorders involve a lack
of reality testing, and deterioration of
social and cognitive functioning
 People with schizophrenia match the
definition of psychotic with gross
impairment of reality testing and inability
to meet the demands of life
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Essential Characteristics of
Schizophrenic Disorders

Schizophrenia is characterized by “positive” and
“negative” symptoms

Positive symptoms are symptoms people with
schizophrenia experience, but normal people do
not

Negative symptoms are behaviours that occur
normally, but do not in schizophrenics
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Schizophrenia: Thought Disorders
 One
of the first signs of schizophrenia is
difficulty maintaining logical thought and
coherent conversation
 The person may show disordered thinking
and impaired memory
 People with schizophrenia may also
suffer delusions (incorrect beliefs)
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Schizophrenia: Perceptual
Disorders
 Another
sign of schizophrenia is
hallucinations
 Compelling perceptual experiences
without any actual physical stimulation
 Auditory hallucinations are most
common
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Schizophrenia: Emotional
Disorders
 A striking
characteristic of schizophrenia
is inappropriate affect
 Emotional responses not appropriate in
the circumstances
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Emotional Disorders

Some people with schizophrenia show no
emotions, what is referred to as constricted or
flat affect

Another characteristic is ambivalent affect or
the showing a wide range of emotions in a
brief period
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Paranoid Type
 People
with paranoid type schizophrenia
may seem normal
 However, their thoughts are characterized
by delusions and hallucinations often
organized around a theme
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Catatonic Type
 Catatonic
•
•
type of schizophrenia has two
subtypes:
The excited type shows excessive
activity
Withdrawn catatonic schizophrenics
appear stuporous
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Disorganized Type
 The
disorganized type of schizophrenia
is characterized by severely disturbed
thought processes, incoherence,
disorganized behaviour, and
inappropriate affect
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Residual Type
 People
who have the residual type of
schizophrenia show symptoms of
schizophrenia but remain in touch with
reality
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Undifferentiated Type
 Some
people exhibit all essential
features of schizophrenia but do not fit
neatly into one of the categories
covered so far
 These individuals are said to have the
undifferentiated type of schizophrenia
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Causes of Schizophrenia
 Most
theorists adopt a diathesis-stress
model to explain the cause of
schizophrenia
 This asserts that a genetic or biological
vulnerability underlies schizophrenia
 Life stress interacts with vulnerability to
produce schizophrenia
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Biological Evidence

Biological factors may predispose a person to
develop schizophrenia

Schizophrenia does “run in families”

Estimates of the degree to which two or more
individuals share a trait are called
concordance rates

Concordance for schizophrenia for identical
twins is about 48%
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Environmental Factors
 Behavioural
theories of schizophrenia are
based on traditional learning principles
 Parents sometimes confuse their children
or have difficulty communicating
effectively or offer children inconsistent
messages
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Nature and Nurture
 The
development of schizophrenia does
not occur through a simple mechanism
 Both biology and environment are
involved
 Vulnerability is a diminished ability to
deal with demanding life events
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Personality Disorders
 Axis
II includes personality disorders that
applies to people with long-standing,
inflexible, maladaptive behaviours that
typically cause stress and social or
occupational difficulties
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Paranoid Personality Disorder
 People
with paranoid personality
disorder show odd or eccentric
behaviour
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Borderline Personality Disorder
 Borderline
personality disorder
individuals have trouble with
relationships
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Histrionic Personality Disorder
 Histrionic
personality disorder
individuals seek attention by
exaggerating situations in their lives
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Narcissistic Personality Disorder
 Narcissistic
personality disorder
individuals have an exaggerated sense
of self-importance
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Antisocial Personality Disorder
 People
with antisocial personality
disorder are self-centred and
irresponsible, and violate the rights of
others
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Dependent Personality Disorder
 Dependent
personality disorder involves
fearful and anxious behaviour
 People with dependent personality
disorder are submissive and clinging
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Are People with Mental
Disorders Violent?
 Most
people who have mental disorders
are not violent
 Likewise, most people who commit
violence do not have a mental disorder
 However, some mental disorders are
associated with a greater likelihood of
committing violent acts
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Diagnoses Associated with Violence
 In
general, the more serious disorders
carry a greater risk for violence
 People who have delusions may be at
specific risk
 In the manic phase of bipolar disorder,
people can be impatient and easily
angered
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The Insanity Plea

Insanity refers to a condition that excuses
people from responsibility

Legally, a person cannot be held responsible
for a crime if, at the time of the crime, the
person lacked the capacity to distinguish
right from wrong, or to obey the law
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The Insanity Plea
 Most
people overestimate how
often the insanity plea is made
 Only about 1% of felony defendants
us an insanity defense
 Even when successful, the
defendant seldom leaves the
courtroom a free person
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Suicide
 People
with mental disorders are more
likely to be a danger to themselves
 Attempters try to commit suicide, but are
unsuccessful
 Completers succeed in taking their lives
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Violence as a Risk for Developing
Mental Disorders
 Only
a few mental disorders increase
the likelihood a person will be violent
 Being the target of violence increases
the risk for many disorders
 The experience of violence has the
greatest potential for harm on children
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Child Abuse

Child abuse is the physical, emotional, or
sexual mistreatment of a child

Victims of abuse and neglect are at greater
risk of mood disorders and antisocial
personality disorders, PTSD, depression,
suicide, and sexual disorders

Child abusers usually do not have any
diagnosable mental disorder
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Intimate Partner Violence
 Intimate
partner violence is also known
as spouse abuse and domestic violence
 Women are more likely to be the victim
 Partner violence is more likely in
couples and societies in which gender
roles are rigid and women have little
power
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Rape
 Rape
is forcible sexual assault on an
unwilling partner
 Date rape, or acquaintance rape is
more common than rape by a stranger
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