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Q.O.D What are the main functions of the skeletal system? 1 Chapter 7 Skeletal System 2 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. • Introduction: A. Bones are very active tissues. B. Each bone is made up of several types of tissues and so is an organ. C. Bone functions include: muscle attachment, protection and support, blood cell production, and storage of minerals. 3 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. • Bone Structure A. Bones differ in size and shape, yet are similar in several ways. 4 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. B.Parts of a Long Bone - Epiphysis - Articular cartilage - Diaphysis - Periosteum - Compact bone - Spongy bone - Medullary cavity - Endosteum - Marrow 5 - A bone's shape makes possible its function - Processes - Grooves - Foramen - Condyles (See table 7.2, p. 135) 6 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 7 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. C. Microscopic Structure - Osteocytes - Lacunae - Canaliculi - Osteon (Haversian system) - Central canal (Haversian canal) - Perforating canals (Volkmann’s canals) 8 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 1. In compact bone, osteocytes and intercellular material are organized into osteons that are cemented together. 2. Unlike compact bone, the osteocytes and intercellular material in spongy bone are not arranged around osteonic canals. 9 10 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 11 Bone Structure 12 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Bone Development and Growth A. Bones form by replacing connective tissue in the fetus. B. Two types: - Intramembranous - Endochondral 13 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. C. Intramembranous Bones 1. Membranelike layers of connective tissue appear at the sites of future bones 2. Osteoblasts deposit bony tissue around themselves – forms spongy bone in all directions 14 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 3. Once osteoblasts deposit bone located in lacunae, they are called osteocytes. 4. Cells of the membranous connective tissue that lie outside the developing bone give rise to the periosteum. 5. Osteoblasts inside the periosteum form compact bone over the spongy bone 15 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. D. Endochondral Bones 1. Most of the bones of the skeleton fall into this category. 2. They first develop as hyaline cartilage models and are then replaced with bone. 16 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 3. 4. Cartilage is broken down in the diaphysis and progressively replaced with bone while the periosteum develops on the outside. Cartilage tissue is invaded by blood vessels and osteoblasts that first form spongy bone at the primary ossification center in the diaphysis. 17 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 5. Osteoblasts beneath the periosteum lay down compact bone outside the spongy bone. 6. Secondary ossification centers appear later in the epiphyses. 18 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 7. 8. 9. A band of hyaline cartilage, the epiphyseal plate, forms between the two ossification centers. Layers of cartilage cells undergoing mitosis make up the epiphyseal plate. Osteoclasts break down the calcified matrix and are replaced with bonebuilding osteoblasts that deposit bone in place of calcified cartilage. 19 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 10. 11. Epiphyseal plates are responsible for lengthening bones while increases in thickness are due to intramembranous ossification underneath the periosteum. A medullary cavity forms in the region of the diaphysis due to the activity of osteoclasts. 20 21 22 Fig. 7.05c 23 Fig. 7.05d 24 Fig. 7.05e 25 Fig. 7.05f 26 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 27 Bone Development 28 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. E. Homeostasis of Bone Tissue - Osteoblasts - Osteoclasts 29 Fig. 7.07 30 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Bone Function A. Support and Protection B. Body Movement - Levers C. Hematopoiesis D. Storage of Inorganic Salts - Calcium phosphate 31 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Skeletal Organization Assemble the Skeleton: Get in groups of 3 and assemble the following parts: - Arm (2) Leg(2) Skull/spine(partial) Pectoral girdle Pelvic girdle 32 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Skeletal Organization A. B. The axial skeleton consists of the skull, hyoid bone, vertebral column (vertebrae and intervertebral disks), and thorax (ribs and sternum). The appendicular skeleton consists of the pectoral girdle (scapulae and clavicles), upper limbs (humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, and phalanges), pelvic girdle (coxal bones articulating with the sacrum), and lower limbs (femur, tibia, fibula, patella, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges). 33 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 34 Q.O.D How many bones are in the skull? - Cranium? - Face? 35 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. – Skull A. The skull is made up of 22 bones, including 8 cranial bones, 13 facial bones, and the mandible. 36 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 37 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. B. Cranium 1. The cranium encloses and protects the brain, provides attachments for muscles, and contains air-filled sinuses that reduce its weight. 2. Contains 8 bones, joined by sutures. 38 Bones of the cranium • Frontal bone – supraorbital foramina – Frontal sinuses • Parietal bones (2) – Joined by sagittal suture – Joined to frontal bone by coronal suture • Occiptal bones – Joined to parietal bones by lambdoidal suture – Foramen magnum – Occipital condyles 39 Q.O.D What is cleft palate? Why does it form? 40 • Temporal bones (2) – Joined to parietal bones by squamosal suture – external auditory meatus – Mandibular fossae – Mastoid process – Styloid process – Zygomatic process 41 • Sphenoid bone – Wing-shaped bone in anterior portion of cranium – Forms base of cranium, sides of skull, and floors and walls of orbits – Sella trucica – Sphenoidal sinuses 42 • Ethmoid bone – Located anterior to sphenoid bone – Forms sections of the cranial floor, orbital walls and nasal cavity walls – Cribriform plates – Crista galli – Perpendicular plate – Superior and Middle Nasal conchae – Ethmoidal sinuses 43 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. C. Facial Skeleton 1. The 13 immovable facial bones and mandible form the basic face and provide attachments for muscles of mastication and expression. 44 • Maxillae – Form upper jaw – Forms anterior portion of hard palate, floors of orbits, sides and floor of nasal cavity – Maxillary sinuses – Palantine processes • Palantine bones (2) – L-shaped, located behind maxillae – Form posterior portion of hard palate and floor of nasal cavity 45 • Zygomatic bones (2) – Form prominance of cheek – Zygomatic arch – Temporal process • Lacrimal bones (2) – Thin, scalelike bone – Located in medial wall of each orbit between ethmoid and maxillae • Nasal bones – Long, thin, rectangular – Form bridge of nose 46 • Vomer bone – Thin, flat bone – Midline within nasal cavity – Forms septum with ethmoid bone • Inferior Nasal Conchae – Scroll-shaped bones – Support mucous membranes 47 • Mandible – Only movable bone in skull – Mandibular condyle – Coronoid process – Mental foramen – Alveolar arch 48 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 49 Infantile Skull • • • • • • • Fontanels Smaller face More prominent forehead Larger orbits Small jaw and nasal cavity Incompletely formed sinuses Frontal bone in two parts – Frontal Suture (Metopic suture) 50 Cleft Palate 51 Q.O.D What is (are) the function(s) of the vertebral column? 52 The Vertebral Column • Structure and Function: – Extends from the skull to the pelvis – Composed of : • Vertebrae • Intervertebral discs – Supports the head and trunk and protects the spinal cord. • Vertebral canal 53 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 54 Q.O.D What is spina bifida? 55 A Typical Vertebra • All Vertebrae share common features: – A drum-shaped body • The Bodies support the weight of the head and trunk • The intervertebral discs cushion the forces of motion 56 Fig. 7.17 57 – Two pedicles – Two plates called laminae – spinous process – The pedicles, laminae and spinous process form the vertebral arch around the vertebral foramen – The spinal cord passes through the vertebral foramen 58 Other Common features • Processes and Foramina: – Transverse process: Between the pedicles and laminae • Point of attachment for muscles and ligaments – Superior and inferior articular processes • Join vertebrae together – Intervertabral foramina: Passageway for spinal nerves and blood vessels 59 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Cervical Vertebrae 1. These seven bones are the smallest of the vertebrae that comprise the neck and support the head. 2. Contain transverse foramina 3. The spinous process for the 2nd through 5th vertebrae are bifid. 60 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 4. The first vertebra is the atlas - Contains two articular facets 5. The second vertebra is the axis, which bears a dens (the odontoid process) that projects upward. - The atlas pivots around the dens when the head is turned from side to side 61 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 62 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. E. Thoracic Vertebrae 1. Twelve thoracic vertebrae articulate with the ribs. 2. These bones are larger and stronger than the cervical vertebrae. F. Lumbar Vertebrae 1. The five massive lumbar vertebrae support the weight of the body. 63 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. G. Sacrum 1. The sacrum is a triangular structure at the base of the vertebral column made up of five vertebrae fused into one bone. 2. The spinous processes of these vertebrae fuse to form a ridge of tubercles that have dorsal sacral foramina along their sides. 3. On the ventral surface of the sacrum, four pairs of pelvic sacral foramina provide passageways for nerves and blood vessels. 64 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H. Coccyx 1. The coccyx is the lowermost portion of the vertebral column and is composed of four fused vertebrae. 65 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Thoracic Cage A. The thoracic cage includes: - the ribs - thoracic vertebrae - sternum - costal cartilages. B. It supports the pectoral girdle and upper limbs, functions in breathing, and protects thoracic and upper abdominal organs. 66 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. C. Ribs 1. Normally, there are 12 pairs of ribs that attach to the thoracic vertebrae. 2. The first seven pairs of ribs are true (or vertebrosternal) ribs 67 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 3. and the floating ribs. The remaining five pairs are false ribs: the first three pairs are vertebrochondral ribs, last two pairs are 68 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 4. Features of a typical rib include a shaft, costal groove, anterior (sternal) end, head, neck, and tubercle. a. The head articulates with the vertebrae; the tubercle articulates with the transverse process of the thoracic vertebrae. 69 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. D. Sternum 1. The sternum (breastbone) is located along the anterior midline of the thoracic cage. 2. It consists of: - manubrium - body - xiphoid process. 70 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 71 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Pectoral Girdle A. B. The pectoral girdle makes an incomplete ring that functions to: support the upper limbs. It is made up of - two scapulae - two clavicles. 72 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. C. Clavicles 1. The clavicles are elongated S-shaped bones located at the base of the neck that function to brace the scapulae. - Acromial end - Sternal end - Commonly called the collar bone 73 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. D. Scapulae 1. The scapulae are flat, triangular bones on either side of the upper back. 2. Features: - Spine - acromion process - coracoid process - glenoid cavity 74 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 75 Fig. 7.22a 76 Fig. 7.22b 77 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Upper Limb A. Bones of the upper limb form the framework for - the arm - the forearm - the hand 78 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. B. Humerus 1. The humerus makes up the upper arm, extending from the scapula to the elbow. 2. It articulates: - with the scapulae at its head - with the radius at the capitulum - with the ulna at the trochlea. 79 • Other features of the humerus –Greater tuberbcle –Lesser tubercle –Anatomical neck –Surgical neck –Deltoid tuberosity –Epicondyles –Coronoid fossa –Olecranon fossa 80 Right Humerus 81 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. C. Radius 1. The radius is located on the thumb side of the forearm, extending from the elbow to the wrist. 2. The flattened head of the radius pivots with the humerus. 3. Other features of the radius include the radial tuberosity and styloid process. 82 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. D. Ulna 1. The ulna is the longer of the two bones making up the forearm - Trochlear notch - Olecranon process - Coronoid process - Radial notch - Head - Styloid process 83 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 84 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. E. Hand 1. The wrist of the hand is made up of eight carpal bones bound into a carpus. 2. The framework of the hand is made up of five metacarpal bones. 3. The fingers are composed of three phalanges in each finger except the thumb, which lacks the middle phalanx. 85 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 86 Q.O.D Other than the skull, how else do male and female skeletons differ? 87 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Pelvic Girdle A. The pelvic girdle consists of: - the two coxal bones B. Functions: - the pelvic girdle supports and protects the lower abdominal and pelvic organs. - it supports the trunk of the body on the lower limbs. - Coxae, sacrum and coccyx = Pelvis 88 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. C. Each coxal bone is made up of three bones: - Ilium -Ischium - Pubis - All fuse in the acetabulum D. The ilium – Largest, most superior - iliac crest - anterior superior iliac spine - sacroiliac joint 89 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. E. The ischium - the L-shaped portion that supports weight during sitting. - ischial tuberosity - ischial spine F. The pubis - the anterior portion of the coxal bones - symphysis pubis - obturator foramen 90 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Lower Limb A. The bones of the lower limb provide the framework for: - the thigh - the lower leg - the foot. 91 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. B. is body. Femur 1. The femur, or thighbone, extends from the hip to the knee and the longest bone in the 2. Its head articulates with the acetabulum; it articulates with the tibia at the medial and lateral condyles. 92 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 3. Features of the femur: - fovea capitis - neck - greater and lesser trochanters. 4. The patella (kneecap) is located in the tendon that passes over the knee. 93 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 94 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. C. Tibia 1. The tibia (shinbone) supports the weight of the body and articulates with the femur (medial and lateral condyles) and with the tarsal bones of the foot. 2. Features: - tibial tuberosity - medial malleolus 95 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. D. not Fibula 1. The fibula is a slender bone lying lateral to the tibia; it does bear body weight. - lateral malleolus 96 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 97 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. E. tarsus. Foot 1. The ankle is composed of seven tarsal bones, forming a a. b. The talus articulates with the tibia and fibula. The calcaneus supports the body weight. 98 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 2. The instep of the foot consists of five metatarsal bones and provides an arch. 3. Each toe is made up of three phalanges, with the exception of the great toe, which lacks a middle phalanx. 99 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 100 Male vs. Female Skeleton • On average, male skeleton is larger • On average, bones of female skeleton are thinner and lighter 101 Pelvic Bones Male • More massive, heavier • Pelvic cavity is smaller • Pelvic inlet is heartshaped, smaller • Pubic Arch narrow • Sacrum is longer and narrower • Coocyx- less movable Female • More delicate, lighter • Pelvic cavity is wider • Pelvic inlet is round, spacious • Pubic arch wide • Sacrum is shorter and wider • Coccyx– more movable 102 Male Cranial Bones Female • Frontal bone is lower and sloping • Browridges are more prominent • External occipital protruberance present • Cranium is larger • Temporal ridge more prominent – square shaped • Frontal bone is rounded • Browridges absent or slight • External occipital protruberance absent • Cranium is smaller (slightly) • Temporal ridge is less prominent – rounder shape 103 Male Facial Bones Female • Face is narrower • Less prominent cheek bones • Nose more prominent, wider • Chin is larger and more square • Face is a little wider • More prominent cheek bones • Nose more pointed, narrow • Chin is smaller, more pointed 104 Male Other Bones Female • Humerus a little shorter • Femur is bigger in diameter and length • Most males have shorter index finger than ring finger • Bones generally heavier with more prominent markings • Humerus is a little longer • Femur smaller in diameter and length • Most females have longer index finger than ring finger • Bones generally lighter with less prominent markings 105 Q.O.D What is arthritis? Compare/Contrast osteoarthritis to rheumatoid arthritis. 106 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Joints A. B. Joints = articulations Joints enable a wide variety of body movements. C. Joints can be classified according to the degree of movement possible and can be immovable, slightly movable, or freely movable. 107 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. D. E. Joints can also classified according to the type of tissue that binds them together. Fibrous Joints 1. Fibrous joints are held in close contact together by dense connective tissue and are: - immovable - only slightly movable 108 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 109 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. F. Cartilaginous Joints 1. Hyaline cartilage or disks of fibrocartilage unite the bones in cartilaginous joints. 2. Examples: 110 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. G. Synovial Joints 1. Most joints of the skeleton 2. Features: - Hyaline cartilage - Joint capsule - Outer membrane - Inner synovial membrane - Synovial fluid - Meniscus (menisci) - Bursa (Bursae) 111 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 112 Fig. 7.35 113 Fig. 7.36 114 Fig. 7.37 Fig. 7.38 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. Classification of Synovial Joints - Ball-and-Socket joint Condyloid joint Gliding joint Hinge joint Pivot joint Saddle joint 117 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. H. Types of Joint Movements 1. When a muscle contracts, its fibers pull its movable end (insertion) oward its stationary end origin), causing movement at a oint. 118 CopyrightThe McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Permission required for reproduction or display. 2. These terms describe movements that occur at joints: flexion, extension, dorsiflexion, plantar flexion, hyperextension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction, pronation, supination, eversion, inversion, retraction, protraction, elevation, and depression. 119