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prepared by
Barbara Heard,
Atlantic Cape Community
Ninth Edition
College
Human Anatomy & Physiology
CHAPTER
7
The Skeleton:
Part C
© Annie Leibovitz/Contact Press Images
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Appendicular Skeleton
• Bones of limbs and their girdles
– Pectoral girdle
• Attaches upper limbs to body trunk
– Pelvic girdle
• Attaches lower limbs to body trunk
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Pectoral Girdle (Shoulder Girdle)
• Clavicles and scapulae
– Attach upper limbs to axial skeleton
– Provide attachment sites for muscles that
move upper limbs
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Pectoral Girdle (Shoulder Girdle)
A&P Flix™: Movement of the Pectoral Girdle
Right-click slide / select “play”
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Figure 7.25a The pectoral girdle and clavicle.
Acromioclavicular
joint
Clavicle
Scapula
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Articulated pectoral girdle
Clavicles (Collarbones)
• Cone-shaped sternal end articulates with
sternum medially
• Flattened acromial end articulates laterally
with scapula
• Anchor muscles
• Act as braces to hold the scapulae and
arms out laterally
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Figure 7.25b The pectoral girdle and clavicle.
Sternal (medial)
end
Posterior
Anterior
Acromial (lateral)
end
Right clavicle, superior view
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Figure 7.25c The pectoral girdle and clavicle.
Acromial end
Anterior
Trapezoid line
Sternal end
Posterior
Conoid tubercle
Right clavicle, inferior view
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Scapulae (Shoulder Blades)
• On dorsal surface of rib cage, between
ribs 2 and 7
• Flat and triangular, with three borders and
three angles
• Several large fossae named according to
location
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Figure 7.26a The scapula.
Suprascapular notch
Acromion
Superior border
Coracoid
process
Glenoid
cavity
Lateral border
Right scapula, anterior aspect
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Superior
angle
Subscapular
fossa
Medial border
Inferior angle
Figure 7.26b The scapula.
Suprascapular notch
Superior
angle
Supraspinous
fossa
Spine
Infraspinous
fossa
Medial border
Coracoid process
Acromion
Glenoid
cavity
at lateral
angle
Lateral border
Right scapula, posterior aspect
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Figure 7.26c The scapula.
Supraspinous fossa
Supraspinous
fossa
Infraspinous
fossa
Subscapular
fossa
Posterior
Anterior
Acromion
Supraglenoid
tubercle
Coracoid
process
Spine
Infraspinous
fossa
Glenoid
cavity
Infraglenoid
tubercle
Subscapular
fossa
Inferior angle
Right scapula, lateral aspect
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The Upper Limb
• 30 bones form skeletal framework of each
upper limb
– Arm
• Humerus
– Forearm
• Radius and ulna
– Hand
• 8 carpal bones in the wrist
• 5 metacarpal bones in the palm
• 14 phalanges in the fingers
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Humerus
• Largest, longest bone of upper limb
• Articulates superiorly with glenoid cavity of
scapula
• Articulates inferiorly with radius and ulna
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Figure 7.27 The humerus of the right arm and detailed views of articulation at the elbow.
Greater
tubercle
Lesser
tubercle
Head of
humerus
Greater
tubercle
Anatomical
neck
Intertubercular
sulcus
Radial groove
Deltoid
tuberosity
Surgical
neck
Deltoid
tuberosity
Medial
supracondylar
ridge
Lateral
supracondylar
ridge
Radial
fossa
Capitulum
Anterior view
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Coronoid
fossa
Olecranon
fossa
Medial
epicondyle
Trochlea
Posterior view
Lateral
epicondyle
Bones of the Forearm
• Ulna
– Medial bone in forearm
– Forms major portion of elbow joint with
humerus
• Radius
– Lateral bone in forearm
– Head articulates with capitulum of humerus
and radial notch of ulna
– Interosseous membrane connects radius and
ulna along their entire length
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Figure 7.28a–b Radius and ulna of the right forearm.
Radial
notch of
the ulna
Head
Neck
Radial
tuberosity
Olecranon
Trochlear
notch
Coronoid process
Proximal
radioulnar
joint
Head of
radius
Neck of
radius
Interosseous
membrane
Ulna
Radius
Ulnar notch
of the radius
Radius
Head of ulna
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Ulnar styloid
process
Distal
Radial styloid
radioulnar
process
joint
Anterior view
Radial styloid
process
Posterior view
Figure 7.28c–d Radius and ulna of the right forearm.
Olecranon
Trochlear notch
View
Coronoid process
Radial notch
Proximal portion of ulna, lateral view
Ulnar notch of radius
Articulation
for lunate
Articulation
for scaphoid
Radial
styloid
process
View
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Head of Ulnar styloid
process
ulna
Distal ends of the radius and ulna at
the wrist
Figure 7.27c–d The humerus of the right arm and detailed views of articulation at the elbow.
Humerus
Coronoid
fossa
Capitulum
Medial
epicondyle
Head of
radius
Trochlea
Coronoid
process of ulna
Radial notch
Ulna
Radial
tuberosity
Radius
Anterior view at the elbow region
Humerus
Olecranon
fossa
Olecranon
Medial
epicondyle
Ulna
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Lateral
epicondyle
Head
Neck
Radius
Posterior view of extended elbow
Hand: Carpus, Metacarpus, and Phalanges
• Carpus (Wrist)
– Eight bones in two rows
• Proximal row—lateral to medial
– Scaphoid, lunate, triquetrum, and pisiform
• Distal row—lateral to medial
– Trapezium, trapezoid, capitate, and hamate
– Only scaphoid, lunate, and triquetrum form
wrist joint
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Hand: Metacarpus and Phalanges
• Metacarpus (Palm)
– Five metacarpal bones (I to V from thumb to
little finger) form the palm
• Phalanges (Fingers)
– Fingers numbered I to V starting at thumb
(pollex)
– Digit I (Pollex) has 2 bones - no middle
phalanx
– Digits II to V have 3 bones—distal, middle,
and proximal phalanx
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Figure 7.29 Bones of the right hand.
Phalanges
• Distal
• Middle
• Proximal
Carpals
• Hamate
• Capitate
• Pisiform
• Triquetrum
• Lunate
Ulna
III II
V IV
Metacarpals
• Head
• Shaft
• Base
Sesamoid
bones
I
Carpals
• Trapezium
• Trapezoid
• Scaphoid
I
II
III IV V
Radius
Anterior view of right hand
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Posterior view of right hand
Carpals
• Hamate
• Capitate
• Triquetrum
• Lunate
Ulna
Pelvic (Hip) Girdle
• Two hip bones (coxal bones or os coxae) and
sacrum
– Attach lower limbs to axial skeleton with strong
ligaments
– Transmit weight of upper body to lower limbs
– Support pelvic organs
• Less mobility but more stable than shoulder joint
• Three fused bones form coxal bone
– Ilium, ischium, and pubis
• Bony pelvis formed by coxal bones, sacrum, and
coccyx
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Figure 7.30 Pelvis.
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Animation: Rotatable Pelvis
Right-click slide / select “play”
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Hip Bone
• Three regions
1. Ilium
• Superior region of coxal bone
• Auricular surface articulates with sacrum
(sacroiliac joint)
2. Ischium
• Posteroinferior part of hip bone
3. Pubis
• Anterior portion of hip bone
• Pubis joins at pubic symphysis joint
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Figure 7.31a The hip (coxal) bones.
Ilium
Anterior gluteal
line
Ala
Iliac crest
Posterior
gluteal line
Anterior
superior
Inferior iliac spine
gluteal line
Anterior inferior
iliac spine
Posterior
superior
iIiac spine
Posterior inferior
iliac spine
Greater sciatic
notch
Ischial body
Acetabulum
Ischial spine
Pubic body
Lesser sciatic
notch
Ischium
Ischial
tuberosity
Ischial ramus
Lateral view, right hip bone
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Pubis
Obturator
foramen
Inferior pubic
ramus
Figure 7.31c The hip (coxal) bones.
Anterior
gluteal line
Ilium
Posterior
gluteal line
Anterior superior
iliac spine
Posterior
superior
iliac spine
Anterior inferior
iliac spine
Inferior gluteal
line
Posterior
inferior
iliac spine
Acetabulum
Greater
sciatic notch
Ischial body
Ischial spine
Pubic body
Lesser
sciatic notch
Ischium
Ischial
tuberosity
Pubic tubercle
Inferior pubic
ramus
Ischial ramus
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Lateral view, right hip bone
Obturator
foramen
Figure 7.31b The hip (coxal) bones.
Ilium
Iliac crest
Anterior
superior
iliac spine
Anterior inferior
iliac spine
Arcuate
line
Superior pubic
ramus
Pubic tubercle
Iliac
fossa
Body of
the ilium
Posterior
superior
iliac spine
Posterior
inferior
iliac spine
Auricular
surface
Greater sciatic notch
Ischial spine
Lesser sciatic notch
Obturator
foramen
Articular surface of
pubis (at pubic
symphysis)
Inferior pubic
ramus
Medial view, right hip bone
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Ischium
Ischial ramus
Figure 7.31d The hip (coxal) bones.
Auricular
surface
Ilium
Anterior
superior
iliac spine
Anterior
inferior
iliac spine
Iliac
fossa
Arcuate
line
Posterior
superior
iliac spine
Posterior
inferior
iliac spine
Superior
pubic
ramus
Greater
sciatic notch
Ischial spine
Pubic
tubercle
Lesser
sciatic notch
Ischium
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Inferior pubic
Ischial
Articular
ramus
ramus
surface of pubis
(at pubic symphysis)
Medial view, right hip bone
Obturator
foramen
Comparison of Male and Female Pelves
• Female pelvis
– Adapted for childbearing
– True pelvis (inferior to pelvic brim) defines
birth canal
– Cavity of true pelvis is broad, shallow, and
has greater capacity
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Comparison of Male and Female Pelves
• Male pelvis
– Tilted less far forward
– Adapted for support of male's heavier build
and stronger muscles
– Cavity of true pelvis is narrow and deep
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Table 7.4 Comparison of the Male and Female Pelves (1 of 3)
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Table 7.4 Comparison of the Male and Female Pelves (2 of 3)
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Table 7.4 Comparison of the Male and Female Pelves (3 of 3)
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The Lower Limb
• Carries entire weight of erect body
• Subjected to exceptional forces if jump or
run
• Three segments of lower limb
– Thigh
– Leg
– Foot
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Bones Of The Thigh
• Femur
– Largest and strongest bone in the body
– Length ~ ¼ of person's height
– Articulates proximally with acetabulum of hip
and distally with tibia and patella
• Patella
– Sesamoid bone in quadriceps tendon
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Figure 7.32a–b Bones of the right knee and thigh.
Fovea
capitis
Neck
Greater
trochanter
Head
Intertrochanteric
crest
Lesser trochanter
Intertrochanteric
line
Gluteal
tuberosity
Linea aspera
Apex
Anterior
Facet for lateral
condyle of femur
Medial and
lateral supracondylar lines
Facet for
medial
condyle
of femur
Popliteal surface
Intercondylar fossa
Surface for
patellar
ligament
Posterior
Patella (kneecap)
Lateral
epicondyle
Medial condyle
Lateral
epicondyle
Adductor
tubercle
Medial
epicondyle
Patellar
surface
Anterior view
Femur (thigh bone)
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Lateral
condyle
Posterior view
Bones Of The Leg
• Tibia
– Medial leg bone
– Receives weight of body from femur; transmits to foot
• Fibula
– Not weight bearing; no articulation with femur
– Several muscles originate from fibula
– Articulates proximally and distally with tibia
• Tibia and fibula connected by interosseous
membrane
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Figure 7.33a The tibia and fibula of the right leg.
Intercondylar
eminence
Lateral
condyle
Head
Superior
tibiofibular
joint
Medial condyle
Tibial
tuberosity
Interosseous
membrane
Anterior
border
Fibula
Tibia
Inferior
tibiofibular
Medial
joint
malleolus
Lateral
malleolus
Inferior articular surface
Anterior view
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Figure 7.33b The tibia and fibula of the right leg.
Articular surface
of medial condyle
Medial
condyle
Articular
surface of
lateral condyle
Head of fibula
Interosseous
membrane
Tibia
Medial
malleolus
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Fibula
Lateral
malleolus
Inferior articular surface
Posterior view
Figure 7.33c–d The tibia and fibula of the right leg.
Lateral
condyle
Fibula
articulates
here
Lateral
condyle
Tibial
tuberosity
Line for
soleus
muscle
Anterior view,
proximal tibia
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Posterior view,
proximal tibia
Figure 7.33e The tibia and fibula of the right leg.
Parts of
fractured
fibula
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X ray of Pott’s fracture
of the fibula
Foot: Tarsus, Metatarsus, Phalanges
• Tarsus
– Seven tarsal bones form posterior half of foot
– Body weight carried primarily by talus and
calcaneus
– Other tarsal bones: cuboid, navicular, and
medial, intermediate, and lateral cuneiform
bones
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Foot: Metatarsals and Phalanges
• Metatarsals:
– Five metatarsal bones (I to V from hallux to little toe)
– Enlarged head of metatarsal I forms "ball of the foot"
• Phalanges
– 14 bones of toes
– Digit I (Hallux) has 2 bones - no middle phalanx
– Digits II to V have 3 bones—distal, middle, and
proximal phalanx
© 2013 Pearson Education, Inc.
Figure 7.34a Bones of the right foot.
Phalanges
Distal
Middle
Proximal
I
Medial
cuneiform
II
III
IV
Metatarsals
V
Intermediate
cuneiform
Lateral
cuneiform
Navicular
Cuboid
Tarsals
Talus
Trochlea
of talus
Calcaneus
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Superior view
Figure 7.34b Bones of the right foot.
Intermediate
cuneiform
First metatarsal
Medial view
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Talus Medial
malleolar
Navicular
facet
Sustentaculum tali
(talar shelf)
Calcaneus
Medial
cuneiform
Calcaneal
tuberosity
Animation: Rotatable Bones of the Foot
Right-click slide / select “play”
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Figure 7.34c Bones of the right foot.
Lateral
malleolar facet
Navicular
Intermediate cuneiform
Lateral cuneiform
Talus
Calcaneus
Lateral view
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Cuboid Fifth metatarsal
Arches Of The Foot
• Maintained by interlocking foot bones,
ligaments, and tendons
• Allow foot to bear weight
• Three arches
– Lateral longitudinal
– Medial longitudinal
– Transverse
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Figure 7.35a Arches of the foot.
Medial longitudinal arch
Transverse arch
Lateral longitudinal arch
Lateral aspect of right foot
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Figure 7.35b Arches of the foot.
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X ray, medial aspect of right foot
Developmental Aspects: Fetal Skull
• Infant skull has more bones than adult
skull
– Skull bones such as mandible and frontal
bones are unfused
– Skull bones connected by fontanelles
• Unossified remnants of fibrous membranes
• Ease birth and allow brain growth
• Four fontanelles
– Anterior, posterior, mastoid, and sphenoidal
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Figure 7.36a–b Skull of a newborn.
Frontal bone
Frontal suture
Anterior
fontanelle
Ossification
center
Parietal bone
Posterior fontanelle
Occipital
bone
Superior view
Frontal bone
Parietal bone
Ossification
center
Posterior
fontanelle
Mastoid
fontanelle
Occipital bone
Temporal bone (squamous portion)
Lateral view
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Sphenoidal
fontanelle
Congenital Abnormalities Of Skull
• Cleft palate
– No medial fusion of right and left halves of
palate
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Figure 7.37 A baby born with a cleft lip and palate.
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Developmental Aspects: Growth Rates
• At birth, cranium huge relative to face
• At 9 months, cranium is ½ adult size
• Mandible and maxilla are foreshortened
but lengthen with age
• Arms and legs grow at faster rate than
head and trunk, leading to adult
proportions
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Figure 7.39a Different growth rates of body parts determine body proportions.
Human newborn
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Human adult
Figure 7.39b Different growth rates of body parts determine body proportions.
Newborn
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2 yrs
5 yrs
15 yrs
Adult
Developmental Aspects: Spinal Curvature
• Primary thoracic and sacral curvatures
obvious at birth
– Give spine a C shape
– Convex posteriorly
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Figure 7.38 The C-shaped spine of a newborn infant.
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Developmental Aspects: Spinal Curvature
• Secondary curvatures
– Cervical and lumbar—convex anteriorly
– Appear as child develops (e.g., lifts head,
learns to walk)
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Developmental Aspects: Old Age
• Intervertebral discs thin, less hydrated, and less
elastic
– Risk of disc herniation increases
• Several centimeter height loss common by 55
• Costal cartilages ossify
– Rigid thorax causes shallow breathing and less
efficient gas exchange
• All bones lose mass, so fracture risk increases
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