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Recovery and Rebirth:
The Age of the
Renaissance
Map of Europe 1500
Timeline of Major Events
•1428-Italy-Florence-Masaccio perfects law of perspective
•1434-Italy-Florence-Cosimo Medici comes to control oligarchy in
Florence
•1447-Italy-Milan-Francesco Sforza takes control of Milan
•1450-1485-England-War of the Roses
•1452-1519-Italy-Leonardo da Vinci
•1453-Byzantine-Fall of Constantinople to Ottoman Turks
•1455-Germany-Mainz-Guttenberg’s printing press, creates
Guttenberg’s Bible
•1463-France-Italy-Charles VIII invades Italy, brings down Medicis
•1475-1564-Italy-Michelangelo-Sistine Chapel
Timeline Continued
• 1478-1502-Spain-Cardinal urges Ferdinand & Isabella Spanish Inquisition
• 1483-1520-Raphael-frescoes at Vatican
• 1490-Italy-Oration of Dignity of Man by Mirandola
• 1493-Holy Roman-Maximillian I
• 1494-Italy-Florence-French expelled Medicis from Florence
• 1509-England-Henry VIII succeeded the English thrown
• 1511-England-The Praise of Folly by Erasmus
• 1513-Italy-The Prince by Machiavelli
• 1516-Spain-Charles V becomes Charles I of Spain
• 1527-Italy-Charles V sacks Rome
Important People
•Leon Battista Alberti -Florentine architect,
•Lorenzo de Medici -head of famous Florentine family caused its financial
downfall
•Baldassare Castiglione -Italian writer, The Book of the Courtier - the
handbook of Euro. Aristocrats
•Francesco Sforza - a leading condottieri [mercenary leader], became Duke of
Milan in 1447
•Cosimo de Medici -in 1434 controlled Florence oligarchy
•Charles VIII - French King in 1494 invaded Naples, brings down Medicis
•Michelangelo -painter, sculptor, architect, famous for the ceiling of the Sistine
Chapel
•Ferdinand and Isabella -union of Spanish kingdoms of Aragón and Castile in
1469 due to their marriage
People continued
• Leonardo da Vinci -great Italian artist, inventor, best example of the
“Renaissance man”
• Mirandola -wrote Oration on the Dignity of Man, one of the most famous
writings of the Renaissance
• Erasmus -Dutch writer, scholar, and humanist
• Niccolo Machiavelli - Exiled from Florence, wrote The Prince (1513)
• Charles V -Charles I-Sacks Rome in 1527, brought end to Italian wars and
Renaissance
• Henry VIII -English King, leaves the Catholic church eventually creating the
Church of England
• Sandro Botticelli - painted Primavera, well defined figures not common in
Early Renaissance art
• Donatello -Italian sculptor famous for David
• Raphael -Italian artist known for Vatican frescos, and Madonna
• Maximillian I -became Holy Roman Emperor in 1493
• Johannes Gutenberg -German printer and pioneer in the use of movable type
Vocabulary
•Condottieri -leaders of bands of mercenaries, hired to protect
various city-states
•Courtier -An attendant at a sovereign's court
•Hanseatic League -alliance of Western European merchants and
towns joined for security
•Papal States -territory of Italy formerly under direct temporal
rule of the pope
•Heresy -any religious doctrine opposed to the beliefs of a
particular church
•Taille -A form of direct royal taxation that was levied in France
on the lower classes
•Black Death -the bubonic plague
•Humanism -philosophy that emphasizes the dignity and worth of
the individual
Charts
The evolving Italian citystates
Women of the Renaissance
• The family was very important, women had arranged marriages to
strengthen business and family ties
• Dowry was payment from women’s family at marriage, they had no control
over their own dowry
• The women managed the household and had autonomy in daily lives
• Apart from a few wealthy noble women the majority of women had no
power which was above males
• Denied access to Universities and most occupations
Importance
• The beginning of humanism which concentrated on the significance of
human activity, learning, and bettering one’s self, spawned
individualism. This thought was incorporated into all aspects of the
social lives of the upper classes.
• Educational Advancement-humanism helped set the ground work for
“Liberal Studies” education system for elite class
• Printing Press-encouraged scholarly research and learning, use of the
vernacular
• Humanist ideas began the first questionings of the Catholic Church
Ch. 14: The Age of Reformation!
Timeline
• 1517: Luther posted 95 Theses
• 1519: Zwingli began church reform in Zurich,
Switzerland
• 1520: Pope Leo X excommunicated Luther
• 1522: Luther began church reform in Saxony
• 1524-25: German peasants revolt hoping for
Luther’s support, but did not receive it
• 1534: Act of Supremacy by Henry VIII declared the
king (not the pope) as the head of the English
Church
Timeline
• 1536-1539: Henry VIII and Parliament dissolved
the English monasteries
• 1539: Parliament approved the Six Articles which
defined the doctrine of the English Church
• 1540: Pope Paul III authorized the Society of
Jesus (Jesuits)
• 1545-63: Council of Trent: assembly formed to
define Roman Catholic doctrine, initiate reforms,
and strengthen the authority of the pope
• 1551: The 42 Articles of English Church made it
more Protestant because affected by Calvinist
ideas
Timeline
• 1555: Peace of Augsburg gave each German
prince the right to determine the religion
(Catholicism or Lutheranism) of his state
• 1559: New Act of Supremacy and Uniformity
under Elizabeth I repealed Mary’s pro-Catholic
laws
• 1560: Presbyterianism became official religion of
Scotland
• 1563: 39 Articles adopted, which defined the
teachings of the Anglican Church
• Martin Luther questioned the doctrines of the
Catholic Church, specifically indulgences. He
refused to recant his 95 theses, was
excommunicated, and began Lutheranism.
• Frederick of Saxony sheltered Luther and
supported him in his reforms of the church.
• Ulrich Zwingli broke way from the Catholic
Church in Switzerland and began the Swiss
Reformation
• John Calvin was influenced by Luther and
continued the Protestant Reformation by
introducing Calvinism to Geneva.
• John Knox brought Calvinism to Scotland.
• King Henry VIII established the state-controlled
Anglican Church (Church of England).
• Thomas More was Lord Chancellor to Henry VII
who opposed the Act of Supremacy and was
executed.
• Thomas Munzer: German anabaptist that wanted
to overthrow religious political and social order
• John of Leyden: head of a theocratic government
in Germany that endorsed polygamy
• Queen Mary tried to restore Roman Catholicism to
England and earned the title “Bloody Mary” by
persecuting Protestants
• Queen Elizabeth sought religious settlement in
England through compromise
• Ignatius Loyola founded the Jesuits and fought for
the Catholic Church against the spread of
Protestantism.
• Erasmus wrote “In Praise of Folly” which
criticized the ethics of the Catholic Church
• Lutheranism: Bible is the only valid source for
doctrine. Baptism and holy communion are the
only sacraments. Celibacy not required for Clergy.
• Calvinism: agreed with Luther about the Bible and
the sacraments. Believed in predestination
• Predestination: Calvinistic belief that God has
already determined those who are saved and those
who are damned.
• Anabaptists: radicals of the Protestant
Reformation
• Inquisition: using severe methods like torture to
convict many people as heretics
• Huguenots: French Calvinists
• Puritans: English Calvinists
• Presbyterians: Scottish Calvinists
• Simony: the sale of church offices
• Indulgences: granting forgiveness of sins in
exchange for money
• Usury: lending money and charging interest
• Nepotism: granting positions to relatives
While the Protestant Reformation allowed some
women to step out of their usual roles (like
Catherine Zell of Germany who preached beside
her husband), traditionally most women remained
obedient servants to their husbands. The
Protestants advocated an importance of family
relationships, but according to the “divine plan,”
women were restricted to only the duties of
mothering children and pleasing their husbands.
The Catholic Church had such a huge role as the central
authority in Europe before the 1500s. Once Martin Luther
stepped out, questioned its authority, and offered a new
interpretation of the Christian faith, others followed this
trend to break away from the Catholic Church.
Protestantism split into different sects, as more ideas and
interpretations spread, especially Calvinism. The Peace of
Augsburg fueled the Reformation by contributing political
support to the movement. While the Counter-Reformation
did reform the practices of the Catholic Church, it hardly
hindered the Protestant Reformation. As Calvinism began
to expand as well, tensions were building and religious
warfare began to seem inevitable. The Reformation could
not have occurred without the evolution of humanistic ideas
during the Renaissance.
Age of Absolutism
Timeline
Battle of Lepanto-1571- Spanish defeated the Turks at Lepanto, it stopped the
Turks from ever reaching Europe
Peace of Alais-1629- allowed the Huguenots to keep their religious and civil
rights from the Edict of Nantes, but stripped them of their private armies
and fortified cities
Fronde-1648-1649- noble uprising against the French government, wanted to
overthrow Mazarin rule for own purposes
English Civil War-1642-1646- a parliament vs. the king, parliament wins
because of a incapable king (Charles I), Constitutional Monarchy became
created with the Parliament becoming stronger
War of Spanish Succession-1702-1713- Charles II left the throne of Spain to
Louis XIV’s grandson. IT was thought that Spain and France would unit
and that would disturb the balance of power which many countries found
threatening, Peaces of Utrecht in 1713 ends the war and France and Spain
have to remain separate, England big winner at Utrecht
Glorious Revolution-1688- confirmed William and Mary as monarchs, The
royal power to suspend and dispense with law was abolished, and the
crown was forbidden to levy taxation or maintain a standing army in
peacetime without parliamentary consent.
Timeline cont.
Bill of Rights-1689- affirmed Parliament’s right to make law as and levy
taxes and made it impossible for kings to oppose or do without
Parliament by stipulating that standing armies could be raised only
with the consent of Parliament
People
Cardinal Richelieu-1624 joined the royal council, issued the Peace of Alais,
sent out royal officials called intendants to the provinces to execute the
orders of the central government (mainly to collect taxes)
Louis XVI-(1643-1715)- key’s to his power was that he was able to restructure
the central policy-making machinery of gov’t because it was part of his
own court and household, building Versailles, revoked Edict of Nantes,
wars and Versailles emptied the treasury
Colbert-(1619-1683)-built roads and canals to improve communications and the
transportation of goods, increase wealth by mercantilism, decrease imports
by raising tariffs on foreign manufactured goods
Frederick the Great-(1640-1688)- the Great Elector, created an army for PrussiaBrandenburg, raise money by establishing the General War Commissariat
to levy taxes for the army and oversee its growth and training
Peter the Great-(1689-1725)- took ideas from the west, went away from the
Church, abolished serfdom, taught mannerisms in Russia, Table of Ranks
could change a non-noble to a noble
People cont.
Suleiman I the Magnificent-(1520-1566)- Turks reached the peak under
his rule, conquest of Constantinople, had superiority over the
Mediterranean
Charles I- (1625-1649)- marriage to Maria, a Catholic, aroused suspicions
about the king’s own religion, Parliament had many feuds with him
over limiting the monarchy, caused a civil war, beheaded
Vocabulary
Absolutism- when the king governs all best example is Louis XIV, one
king, one law, one faith
Taille-an annual direct tax usually levied on land or property
Mercantilism- decrease the need for imports and increase exports
Constitutional Monarchy- the king and the Parliament decide on laws first
seen in England
Commonwealth- republic
Oligarchy-A form of government in which the supreme power is placed in
the hands of a few persons
Monopoly- when a company has total control over their competition over
that specific product
French Classicism- imitation of the artists of antiquity, an emphasis on
geometric shapes, and the use of definite lines to clearly delineate
objects, and the idealization of nature.
Dutch Realism- interested in the realistic portrayal of secular, everyday life
Vocabulary cont.
French Neoclassicism- Louis XVI used theater to attract attention to his
monarchy, emphasized the clever, polished, and correct over the
emotional and imaginative.
Women
In Russia, Peter shattered the seclusion of
upper-class Russian women and demanded
that they remove the traditional veils that
covered their faces. Overall in Europe the
women were still looked down upon.
The Scientific Revolution
Europe During the Revolution
Timeline of Revolution
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1543- Copernicus’ “On The revolutions” is finally published, displaying the heliocentric
theory (the sun is at the center of the universe)
1543- Versalius publishes On the Fabric of the Human Body, making unprecedented
observations of the human body
1609- Kepler publishes Astronomia Nova, which contains his first two Laws of Planetary
Motion
1610- Galileo publishes his major breakthroughs of the universe, using the newly invented
telescope in ”Sidereal Messenger”
1619- Kepler publishes Harmonia Mundi, which contains his third law describing the form
of the orbits and is the last step towards taking the world away from the Aristotelian system
1620- Bacon publishes “Npvum Organum”, showing how the diverse scientific fields relate
to one another
1632- Galileo publishes “Concerning the Two Chief World Systems”, which compares the
Ptolemaic System and the Copernican system
1633- Galileo is forced to recant his theories due to the Inquisition
1660- Boyle publishes “New Experiments Physico-Mechanical Touching the Spring of the
Air”, displaying his gas laws
1662- The royal Society of London is founded
1687- Newton publishes “Principia”, which shows the laws of universal gravitation
Important People during the
Revolution
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Copernicus- undisputed champion of the Scientific Revolution. He perfected the
heliocentric theory, opposing the Ptolemaic System and the geocentric theory.
His work, “On the Revolutions”, was not published until after his death for fear
of society’s harsh reprisal
Kepler- said the universe was shaped on the basis of geometric figures. He
created his three laws of planetary motion, confirming the Copernican system.
The laws showed that the orbits moved in elliptical patterns, the speed of a
planet increases when it is closer to the sun, and the square of a planet’s period
revolution is equal to the cube of the average distance from the sun.
Galileo- first human to use the telescope to observe the universe. His
observations destroyed the theory that the make-up of the universe was
composed of material similar to that of Earth. Wrote his “Dialogue…” in Italian
over Latin so the majority could read it. The work argues for the Copernican
system and eventually makes Galileo recant because of the Inquisition
Newton- wrote “Principia”, which demonstrated the universal law of gravitation
and the fact that the universe was one huge uniform system
Vocabulary
• Heliocentric- Theory introduced by Copernicus which
disproved the geocentric belief that the Earth was the
center of the universe and instead pitted the Sun at the
center
• Scientific Method- new method of inquiring knowledge set
forth by Bacon which was built upon inductive principles
• Scientific Society- Facilities which enabled research to be
carried out along new experimental lines.
Women and the Revolution
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Still had traditional attitude that the
woman’s role should be that of a
daughter, wife, and/or mother.
Women interested in Science had to go
about it through an informal education
More opportunities were given to elite
women (ex: Margaret Cavendish,
aristocrat involved in crucial scientific
debates)
In Germany, women interested in
Science had greater opportunities
because of traditional female
participation in craft production- 14%
of all German astronomers between
1650-1710 were women.
Women and the Revolution
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Women working in family observations
received training in science
Maria Winklemann- German Astronomer,
denied position as an assistant astronomer
by the Berlin Academy
No women invited to join Royal Academies
Men still had opinions from Medieval times
that women were inherently base, very
susceptible to sinning, and needed the
controlling of men
Men used the new science as an argument to
keep women at home and to keep the
argument that they were inferior
Summary
•
At the beginning of the Revolution, society was very much based on man’s
ego. The Earth was pitted at the center of the universe and men thought that
the world revolved around them and that even the universe was of the same
material and form as the Earth. As new discoveries arose, such as the
Copernican system, Kepler’s Laws, Newton’s gravitational laws, and Galileo’s
astronomical discoveries, the opinion was soon shifted. Men began to see that
science could not just be based around their egos and that true observations
had to be made over inferring through logic the laws of the universe. Though
religion tried to cause friction during this shift, the Revolution eventually won
out. Today, Scientific observations are the only valid ways to prove anything,
and men look at the universe as a solitary unit which has properties that one
needs to actually research before inferring anything.
Chapter 18: The Enlightenment
The Enlightenment
Motto: “Dare to know!:
Have the courage to use
your own intelligence!”
— Immanuel Kant
Reason behind all things
• Seek progress for a better
society
Road to Enlightenment

popularization of science

Newton’s Principia
Fontanelle’s Plurality of
Worlds
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• impact of travel literature
• accounts of diff. cultures
• legacy of Locke and Newton
new skeptism

Peter Bayle (1647- 1706)

attacked religious attitudes
•intellectual inspiration
Philosophes
• most not philosophers
• most French
• affected individuals everywhere
• rational criticism- applied
• freedom of expression
•most did not receive
Montesquieu (1689-1755)
Spirit of Laws (1748)
• 3 types of government
Beliefs
• Persian Letters- criticize French
institutions
republics- small
•traditional religion
monarchy- medium like
Britain
•advocates- religious toleration
despotism- large
•reason- liberates humanity
•denounces slavery
Voltaire (1649-1778)
Real name: François-Marie Arouet
• enlightened despotism
– proponent of this form of
government
– correspondence with
Catherine and Frederick
• advocate of Deism
– believed in the ability of
man to shape his destiny
– God = clock maker
Treatise on Toleration (1763)
• proposed religious toleration
•no problems in England &
Holland
Denis Diderot (1713-1784)
Growing pains
• son of craftsman
• Jesuit education
•Dedicated to independence
•most versatile of philosophes
•University of Paris
• father’s wish- lawyer or
clergy
“Great work of his life”
THE ENCYCLOPEDIA
John Locke
• Essay Concerning
Human Understanding
– “tabula rasa”- everyone
born blank slate
• Social Contract
– Second Treatise on
Government
• Locke’s influence
– “life, liberty, pursuit of
happiness” in American
Constitution
“Science of Man”
David Hume (1711-1776)
Scottish philosopher
•Treatise on Human Nature
• idea: “science of man”
Adam Smith (1723-1790)
• Wealth of Nations (1776)
• laissez-faire= leave alone,
promoting capitalist system
•attack mercantilism,
promotes capitalism
Quesnay and the Physiocrats
leader François Quesnay (1694-1774)
land only source of wealth
individuals should pursue self-interest
Marie-Jean de Condorcet (1743-1794)
•French philosophe
•The Progress of the Human Mind
•nine stages of history- previous
•tenth stage- perfection
• terrorized by French revolutionaries
Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)
Early Years
born in Geneva
Discourse on the Origins
of Inequality of Mankind
abandoned
•civilization corrupted man
studied music and classics
•gov’t necessary evil
moved to France
The Social Contract (1762) (cont. on next slide)
agreement of the governed by general will
people have right to change the government
Rousseau (continued)
Emile (1762)
Social Contract (cont.)
education work
all responsible to govern
themselves
5yr.-12yr. - nature taught
Emile
12-16 - abstract learning
liberty- follow best for
group
17-19- encouraged reason
Rousseau’s private beliefs
education should aid
natural instincts
women naturally inferior
sent children
Women in the Enlightenment
• females- naturally inferior according to
most philosophes
• Diderot and Voltaire- positive views
Mary Astell
A Serious Proposal to the
Ladies (1697)
•women intellectually equal
Some Reflections upon
Marriage
•reconsiders traditional roles
Mary Wollstonecraft
(1759-1797)
Vindication of the Rights of
Women (1792)
uses beliefs about man’s role
to the monarchy as
justification
called for equal rights in
education and economic and
political society
Social Life of the Philosophes
Salons
ran by socialite women
began in the 17th century
elite women’s role in politics
Other ways of expression:
• Societies: secret and learned
•Coffee houses, cafés
•public libraries
Marie-Thérèse de
Geoffrin
•haven for Diderot’s The
Encyclopedia
•attracted Montesquieu,
Voltaire
Art during the Enlightenment
Antoine Watteau
Rococo Art
(1684-1721)
•emphasized grace
The Pilgramage to Cythera
•rejected geometry in art
portrayal of aristocratic life
•very secular
Giovanni Battista Tiepolo
(1696-1770)
ceiling of Bishop’s Palace
blends with Baroque
architecture
Balthasar Neumann (1687-1753)
premier architect
church at Vierzehnheiligen
the Residenz
elaborate, ornate and colorful
Music
Johann Sebastian Bach
Mass in B Minor
St. Matthew’s Passion
boisterous spirit in his
secular music
felt music means for
worshipping God
George Frederick Handel
(1685-1759)
stormy career
moved to England
40+ operas
Messiah
• most well known work
Cultural Innovations
Novel
Samuel Richardson
• Pamela - serious tone
•wide success
Henry Fielding
• History of Tom Jones,
A Foundling
•adventure story
Recording of History
eliminated need for God
in history
politics dominated
philosophes writings
Decline and Fall of the
Roman Empire by
Edward Gibbon
Religion
Under Catholic
control in 1700:
Spain
Portugal
Protestant domains:
France
Scandanavia (Lutheranism)
Italy
N. Germany (Lutheranism)
Poland
England (Anglicanism)
S. Germany
Scotland (Calvinism)
Habsburg domains
Religious Tolerance
Toleration and Jews
Joseph II of Austria
most lived in E. Europe
Toleration Patent of 1781
restricted most places (except Poland)
Catholicism- public
Christians- assimilation of Jews
Lutherans, Greek
Orthodox and Calvinists
can worship privately
intellectuals- favored acceptance of Jews
“Non-Catholics are in future admitted under dispensation to buy
houses and real property, or practice as master craftsmen, to take
up academic appointments and posts in public service, and are not
required to take the oath of any form contrary to their religious
tenets.” -- Toleration Patent (p. 628)
Important Terms
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social contract- obligation of a ruler to the governed
tabula rasa- man born a blank slate shaped by experiences
enlightened absolutism- ex: Frederick the Great and Catherine the Greatrulers who ruled for the good of the people though had supreme power
laissez-faire - hands off government policy toward economics (Adam Smith)
freedom of thought- Immanuel Kant- each person has inalienable right to
think freely
Deism- religion of Voltaire- belief system with God as a clock maker
Chapter 19
The Eighteenth Century: European
States, International Wars, & Social
Change
Europe in the 1700s
Timeline
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1703: Peter the Great establishes St. Petersburg
1711: Charles VI takes Hapsburg throne
1714: end of War of Spanish Succession
1715: Louis XV takes French throne
1733 – 1735: War of Polish Succession
1740: Maria Teresa takes control of Hapsburg lands
1740 – 1748: War of Austrian Succession
1756 – 1763: The Seven Years’ War
1762: Catherine the Great takes Russian throne
1772: 1st partition of Poland
1774: Louis XVI takes French throne
1788: Louis XVI calls Estates General
1789: Storming of the Bastille, Great Fear, National Assembly
1793: 2nd partition of Poland, Louis XVI is executed, Reign of Terror
1795: 3rd partition of Poland
Terms of the 18th Century
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Natural rights: inalienable privileges that cannot be withheld from individuals
Enlightened absolutism: absolute monarchs should make reforms society needs
Domestic system: the practice of using individual households to perform specific
tasks in a production process in order to produce goods for merchants
cottage system: the domestic system
Pugachev’s Rebellion: a serf rebellion in Russia led by Emelian Pugachev from
1773 to 1775, as a result Catherine the Great reorganized the Russian
government
the Diplomatic Revolution: took place in years after 1748, Frederick the Great
allied with the British and Austria, in hopes to regain Silesia, allied with France
and the Hapsburgs, and the Russians
the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle: ended the War of Austrian Succession in 1748,
Prussia kept Silesia, but other conquered territories were returned to their
owners.
Primogeniture: treating the first son as favorite, came under attack as
enlightenment ideas spread
Pragmatic Sanction: developed by Charles VI so that other European countries
would recognize the authority of his female heir, Maria Theresa
Monarchies of the 18th Century
FRANCE: the Old Regime
• King Louis XV: r. 1715 – 1774: his chief minister was Cardinal Fleury
• Fleury helped to stabilize French currency and maintain peace
• Overall, the King did little to solve major problems in France, with
financial difficulties only increasing after the Seven Years’ War
• The nobles were upset over privileges and rights they lost as
monarchs became more absolute
• King Louis XVI: r. 1774 – 1792: he married Marie Antoinette, an
Austrian princess who spent enormous amounts of money resulting in
outrage from the French people
• Louis XVI appointed Turgot to be controller general of finances,
Turgot abolished guilds and tried to reduce government spending, but
he did not succeed in fixing France’s economic problems
• Louis XVI dismissed Turgot in 1776 and appointed Neker to his
position. Necker increased spending and further worsened the
financial situation and the king dismissed him in 1781.
• Overall, Louis XVI was an ineffective king whose inability to solve
Frances problems set the stage for the French Revolution.
ENGLAND
• In the 18th century power was shared between Parliament and
the king
• Parliament was dominated by the landed aristocracy
• The economy grew as more capital and better transportation
became available, requiring more raw materials and world
markets.
• The Stuart dynasty ended with death of Queen Anne
• The crown passed to George I (1714 – 1727), then George II
(1727 – 1760), then George III (1760 – 1820)
• Robert Walpole was Prime Minister for George I and George II,
he had considerable power over running the British government
since they had little understanding of its workings
• Walpole tried to maintain peace and reduce new taxes
• William Pitt the Elder became prime minister in 1757 and
worked to acquire new colonies, but he was dismissed by
George III and replaced with Lord Bute
• George III wanted to strengthen the monarchy, but the people
wanted a larger role in their government, so the king was highly
criticized.
PRUSSIA
• Frederick William I: r. 1713 – 1740: he enforced
somewhat strict economic policies and managed the
country’s finances very well, increasing its income.
He also doubled the size of the Prussian army, with
army officers becoming members of the higher social
class
• Frederick II a.k.a. Frederick the Great: r. 1740 –
1786: made Prussia one of the most powerful
countries in Europe through taking over territory such
as the Hapsburg province of Silesia. He also tried
reforms to modernize his government. He helped
economic development through industry, using tariffs
and loans. Frederick II also had a fairly tolerant
religious policy, respecting rights of both Lutherans
and Catholics.
RUSSIA
• Peter the Great: he died in 1725, and failed to appoint an heir,
so the army and the nobility took over control of the country for a
few years until Peter III took the throne in 1762, but he only
ruled for a few months because he was incompetent, so his wife
– Catherine the Great – took over.
• Catherine the Great: r. 1762 – 1796: she was a strong ruler who
liked the reform ideas of the Enlightenment, but she did little to
reform Russia. She continued the economic program set in
place by Peter the Great, reducing internal barriers to trade.
Russia’s export of goods increased. She wanted to increase the
power of the throne, but rewarded the nobility that supported her
with land and some power. After Pugachev’s serf revolt in 1773,
she reorganized government, giving control to local nobility in
provinces.
AUSTRIA
• Charles VI: r. 1711 – 1740: He was Holy Roman Emperor and
ruler of Austria. He gained the Spanish Netherlands with a
peace treaty in 1713. He had no male heir, so he created the
Pragmatic Sanction so that other European rulers would, upon
his death, recognize his daughter, Maria Theresa, as his heir
(but they didn’t, causing the War of Austrian Succession)
• Maria Theresa: r. 1740 – 1780: After the War of Austrian
Succession, her husband received the title of Holy Roman
Emperor, but he left Maria Theresa in control. She wanted to
consolidate her control, so she took most of the local nobility’s
power away. She imposed taxes on both the nobility and the
clergy, and abolished the state’s control over the Catholic
church.
• Joseph II: r. 1765 – 1780: He did not begin to rule Austria until
1780, when Maria died. He wanted to be an enlightened
despot, so he instituted reforms to modernize his government
and increase the throne’s power over the Hapsburg lands and
over the church and nobility.
Wars of the 18th Century
The War of Austrian Succession
• 1740 to 1748
• Charles VI (1711 – 1740) had no male heir, so he worked to
establish the Pragmatic Sanction with other European countries
so that they would recognize Maria Theresa, his daughter, as
the Austrian ruler upon his death
• When Charles VI died, other European rulers ignored the
Pragmatic Sanction, led by Frederick II of Prussia who invaded
Austria
• The French also entered into war with Austria, so Austria made
an alliance with France’s traditional enemy, Great Britain
• The war quickly became quite widespread, countries took turns
seizing each others’ colonies in the Far East and in America
• In 1748 the peace treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle ended the war and
returned seized territories to their rightful owners – except for
Prussia, who refused to give back territory it took from Austria.
The Seven Years’ War : the
war in Europe
• 1756 to 1763
• This war took place in Europe and in the colonies
• The War in Europe: it began when Frederick the Great of
Prussia invaded Saxony (Austria’s ally), Austria was also allied
with France, Russia, so Frederick was facing a powerful
opponent and was defeated in several battles. Prussia,
however, received financial assistance from England, who
hoped to strengthen Prussia in order to weaken France and
hinder France’s efforts in the colonial wars that were taking
place
• In 1762 the alliance against Prussia fell apart because Russia
left the war (Peter III, the new ruler, liked Frederick), so in 1763
Prussia validated its possession of Silesia with the Treaty of
Hubertusburg
The Seven Years’ War : the war in colonies
•
•
•
•
a.k.a. the French & Indian War
France and England went to war in over their colonies
France allied with Spain, and England lost some territory at first
Finally, William Pitt the Elder came to power as prime minister in
England and from 1757 to 1761 he helped to better fund the
war, and substantially improved the British navy so that they
could provide reinforcements and supplies for the colonies, so
the British began to win some battles
• In 1763 the Treaty of Paris ended the war, with the British
getting French Canada and land between the Appalachian Mts.
And the Mississippi River. The British also gained dominance in
India, and took Florida from Spain since they were allied with
France.
• In the end, the British won over France.
Social Changes in the 18th Century
• There was rapid population growth
• In the 2nd half of the century attitudes towards children changed (as a result
of enlightenment ideas) so that they were no longer viewed as miniature
adults, instead of being dressed in adult-like clothing, children’s clothing
shops emerged with more comfortable and relaxed clothing, and
primogeniture was criticized.
• New ways of finance emerged as the establishment of banks allowed for
paper currency to become widespread and an expansion of credit to allow
for growth of industry.
• The domestic system emerged in the countryside, a merchant could have
individual households perform specific tasks in a production process to
provide him with goods to sell.
• Colonial empires allowed for an increase in global trade and an expansion of
the country’s economy because they had people to whom they could sell
their goods, thus supporting their mercantilist systems.
• Society was mostly rural, with free peasants and serfs making up 85% of the
population of Europe
• The Nobility made up about 3% of the population of Europe, and for the
most part they remained a fairly powerful group, both militarily and politically.
• Poverty remained a major problem for Europe
Chapter 20
A Revolution in Politics:
The Era of the French
Revolution and Napoleon
Timeline of the French Revolution
• 1774- Louis XVI crowned as French King
• 1788- France bankrupt, which causes tensions and
troubles and leads to revolution.
• 5/5/1789- The Estates-General meets for the first
time since 1614.
• 5/5/1789- The Third Estate declares itself the
National Assembly with the Tennis Court Oath.
• 6/17/1789- Louis XVI recognizes the National
Assembly and allows per capita vote.
• 7/14/1789- Storming of the Bastille
Timeline (continued)
• 8/14/1789- Feudalism ended in France
• 8/1789- Declaration of Rights of Man adopted
• 10/5/1789- Parisian women march on Versailles
because of a bread shortage, Louis VXI and Marie
Antoinette are relocated to Paris.
• 1790- Civil Constitution of the Clergy makes
Catholicism state religion of France.
• 1791- Louis XVI adopts a Constitution
• 1791- The Legislative Assembly meets
• 9/211792- The National Convention meets and
installs a republic. They tire Louis XVI for
treason and convict him.
Timeline (continued)
• 1/21/1793- Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette
guillotined in Paris.
• 1793- Committee of Public Safety formed by
National Convention, Reign of TerrorRobespierre and Jacobins take control of France
and kill royalist sympathizers.
• 7/27/1974- Robespierre arrested and guillotined.
• 1795- The Directory established to govern France.
• 1795-1799- Napoleon gains power.
• 1799- Napoleon declares himself Consul of France
Timeline (continued)
• 1802- Napoleon declares himself Consul for life,
and then Dictator
• 1803- Napoleon sells Louisiana territory to the
U.S. in order to gain money for his nation and
release himself from any conflict with the U.S.
and its allies.
• 1809-1810- Continental System- closing off
European ports from Britain.
• 4/11/1814- Napoleon abdicates the throne and is
exiled to Elba.
• 5/10/1814- Treaty of Paris.
Timeline (continued)
• 9/1814- Congress of Vienna begins, to remake
Europe after the downfall of Napoleon
• 3/1/1815- Napoleon begins his march on Paris.
• 3/20/1815- Napoleon enters Paris and begins his
“100 days.”
• 6/1815- Battle of Waterloo, Napoleon defeated.
• 5/5/1821- Napoleon dies
Terms
• Estates-General-consisted of representatives from
three Estates, French parliamentary body, called
by Louis XVI for the first time since 1614 and
began the revolution.
• First Estate- the clergy
• Second Estate- the nobles, concerned about the
loss of their power in the church, military, and
government.
• Third Estate- bourgeoisie and peasantry, 70-80%
of the population, concerned that the other two
estates were exempt from taxes, wanted and
enlightened despot,
Terms
• Declaration of the Rights of Man- Adopted in
August, 1789 by the National Assembly, this
document states how men are born free and equal
and governments must protect the rights.
• Tennis Court Oath- The Third Estate was locked
out of the Estates-General meeting place, so they
met and swore to continue to meet until there was
a new constitution for France.
• Storming of the Bastille- Louis XVI wanted to use
force against the Estates-General, but urban
uprisings prevented him. A mob stormed the
Bastille in order to find arms.
Terms
• Bourgeoisie- Middle-class workers, merchants,
industrialists, and bankers.
• Old Regime- The Absolute Monarchy in France
• Napoleonic Code-Napoleon’s codification of laws
that forms the basis of laws in many modern day
countries.
• Jacobins- Radicals during the revolution
• “Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity”- The slogan of
the Revolution.
People
• Louis XVI- Absolute monarch, unwilling to
change to enlightened despot
• Enlightenment thinkers- inspired bourgeoisie and
American Revolutionaries with their ideas about
government.
• Robespierre- Leader of Jacobins, lead the Reign of
Terror
• Napoleon- Self-declared Consul of France,
military strategist, took over Continental Europe,
exiled to Elba, returned for 100 days, defeated at
Waterloo finally
Women
• During the revolution, women of Paris
staged a march on Versailles and forced
Louis XVI and Marie Antoinette to return
to Paris.
• Declaration of Rights of Women in 1791
voiced woman’s desire for equality among
men in France.
Europe in the Age of Napoleon
Importance
The French Revolution was an attempt to put the
ideas of the philosophes into action. It was a
major turning point in European political history
because it helped promote more democratic ideals
and helped begin the modern history of Europe.
During the revolution, the weakened nation was an
easy target for Napoleon to take over, and he did
so successfully and began his campaign
conquering lands of Europe. Eventually, the
majority of Continental Europe was under control
of the dictator until he was finally defeated and
exiled, and defeated again at Waterloo after his
return.