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Chapter 25
The Beginning of the TwentiethCentury Crisis:
War and Revolution
Map 25.1: Europe in 1914
The Road to World War I
Before the outbreak of WWI, Europeans were optimistic about
material progress
Felt European society was moving towards an earthly utopia
WWI kills millions of Europeans and brings an end to the period
known as the age of progress
Nationalism and Internal Dissent
Nationalism
• Liberals claimed that creation of national states would bring
peace
• Instead it was the most responsible for triggering WWI
• Led to competition instead of cooperation
• Brinkmanship
 Defended national honor
 Believed they had to support allies to preserve their own
internal security
Internal dissent
• Ethnic tensions
 Irish in British Empire
 Slavic minorities in the Balkans &
Austrian Empire
 Poles in the Russian empire
• Growing power of Socialist labor
movements
 Increase is strikes alarmed conservative
leaders
Possible Test Question
Which of the following trends helped lead to the
outbreak of the Great War?
Conservative leaders hoped to crush internal
democratic movement through war.
European generals adopted new military policies
European states felt they had to uphold the power of
their allies for their own internal security
The downward spiral of European economies
The dismantling of Europe’s overseas empires
Militarism
Conscription
• Armies doubled in size between 1890 1914
Influence of military leaders
• Developed complex military plans that
took precedence over political plans
The Outbreak of War: The Summer of 1914
The effects of the Balkan Wars prior to 1914
• Tension between Russia & Austria for control of Balkan states
• Nationalism pushed minority groups to seek independence
Immediate cause of WWI was the assassination of
Archduke Francis Ferdinand and wife Sophia, June 28,
1914
Germany gives “full support” to Austria
• Blank Check
• Austria declares war on Serbia on July 28, 1914
Russian mobilization
• Germans responded with an ultimatum
• Russians ignored it and Germany declared war on
Russia
Possible Test Question
Among nineteenth-century European
political movements, the one most
responsible for triggering World War I was
Nationalism.
Liberalism.
Conservatism.
Socialism.
Modernism.
Schlieffen Plan
• Minimal troops against Russia
• Quick strike against France by moving through
Belgium
• Germany declared war on France to carry out their
plan
• Britain declares war on Germany for invading
Belgium neutrality
The
Schlieffen
Plan
Possible Test Question
The outbreak of the Great War was greatly
accelerated by the Schlieffen Plan, which was
Germany’s promise of full-fledged support for Austrian
military actions against Serbia.
The Black Hand’s plan for the assassination of
Archduke Ferdinand of Austria.
Germany’s military plan to invade France through
neutral Belgium before attacking Russia.
Russia’s mobilization plan against both Germany and
Austria-Hungary.
The German emperor’s last attempt to persuade Russia
not to mobilize its armies.
The War 1914-1915: Illusions & Stalemate
European attitudes toward the beginning of war
Belief in a short, romantic war, that would provide a
release from the dull and boring existence of mass
society
Started in Aug. 1914 – troops thought they would be
home for Christmas
Failure of the Schlieffen Plan
Right flank was weakened to prevent Russian invasion
in Eastern Germany
British mobilized faster than expected
Most important consequence - Western front bogs down
into trench warfare
First Battle of the Marne, September 6-10, 1914
Germans stopped.
Battle Scene in Northern France
Possible Test Question
Most Europeans believed that the Great War
would
Be much like the American Civil War in length.
Be an exciting, emotional release from the otherwise
dull and boring existence of mass society.
Last for years creating a rousing state of perpetual
heroics as proclaimed by Nietzsche in his writings on
“superman.”
Ultimately bring about the unification of Europe in one
centralized and highly militarized government.
Result in a new balance of power throughout all of
Western Civilization.
War in the East
Fighting was characterized by more mobility than
the trench warfare on the Western Front, but still
resulted in high numbers of casualties.
Russian Failures
Battle of Tannenberg, August 30, 1914
Battle of Masurian Lakes, September 15, 1914
Austrian Failures
Galicia and Serbia
Germans come to Austria’s aid
Defeat Serbia
Inflict heavy casualties on Russia (2.5 million dead)
Italy doesn’t honor prewar alliance – joins allies in
1915
The War 1916-1917: The Great Slaughter
Trench warfare
“No-man’s land” – area between trenches
Political pressure for military results prompted
Generals to throw massive amounts of men at defensive
positions
Daily life for the soldiers was characterized by long
periods of boredom followed by artillery barrage and
frontal assaults by troops
Trench warfare became a senseless slaughter of troops
incompetent officers continually ordered their troops to
accomplish impossible battlefield objectives
“Softening up” the enemy (usual tactic)
• Artillery barrage before soldiers attack
 intended to destroy enemy barbed wire, make them hide in
bunkers, psychologically shock them and make them
vulnerable to attack
Battle of Verdun, 1916, Germans lost 700,000 men in
10 months
Battle of the Somme, 1916, British lost 60,000 men in
one day.
• Heaviest one-day loss in World War I
As the soldiers settled into trench warfare
•
•
•
•
They became miserable in rat-infested trenches
Dealt with trench foot
Lost the romantic feel to the war
Lost morale as they waited to die
Trench Warfare in France
Map 25. 2: The Western Front, 1914-1918
Map
25.3:
The
Eastern
Front,
19141918
Possible Test Question
The development of trench warfare in
France was characterized by
Quick advances and seizures of enemy
trenches.
Fewer casualties due to thick fortifications.
Long periods of boredom broken by artillery
barrages and frontal assaults by enemy troops.
High morale and assurance of victory among
the troops whose use of modern weapons
reduced casualty rates.
Fraternization between the opposing armies.
Possible Test Question
As fought in World War I, trench warfare
Became a senseless slaughter of troops on all sides with
hundreds of thousands of men dying for battlefield
gains of a few miles at best.
Increased the morale of soldiers who fought well and
came to obey promptly the orders of their superiors.
Became increasingly unreal as baffled and incompetent
officers persistently ordered their men to accomplish
battlefield objectives that were impossible.
Brought great innovations to military tactics as the long
conflict forced generals to devise novel tactics.
A and C.
The Widening of the War
August 1914: Ottoman Empire enters the war
Battle of Gallipoli, April 1915
May 1915: Italy enters the war against Austria-Hungary
September 1915: Bulgaria enters the war on the side of the
Central Powers
Middle East
Lawrence of Arabia (1888-1935)
April 1917: Entry of the United States
The United States tried to remain neutral
Sinking of the Lusitania, May 7, 1915
Return to unrestricted submarine warfare January 1917
Germany gambles – starve Britain before the U.S. enters the war
United States enters the war, April 6, 1917
• Zimmerman Telegram and unrestricted submarine warfare
U.S. provides fresh troops and morale for the surge of 1918
Possible Test Question
The chief reason for the United States’ entry
into World War I was
The success of British propaganda.
German violations of the principles of
neutrality and freedom of the seas.
The expulsion of the American consul from
Berlin.
Diplomatic chicanery on the part of the
Austrians.
The threat by Mexico to invade the
southwestern United States.
A New Kind of Warfare
Air Power
1915: first use of airplanes on the battle-front
• First for recon, then for combat
German use of zeppelins
Tanks
1916: first use of tanks on the battlefield by British
• Early tanks ineffective
1918: British Mark V first effective tank
• Tanks play a larger role in WWII
The Home Front: The Impact of Total War
Increased Government Centralization and expansion of
Government power
Conscription
draft, or mandatory military service
Death rates from the war hit all social classes
Highest death rates
• Junior officers from aristocracy who led charges across “no man’s
land”
• Unskilled laborers and peasants who were infantry troops
Effects on Economies
European governments gradually took full control of all aspects of
their economies
Inflation from higher wages and scarcity of consumer goods
Large industrialists benefited from the war due to wartime
contracts for weapons and munitions
Possible Test Question
Economically, World War I
Saw European governments adopt a “hands off” policy
toward their economies.
Saw European governments all take control of only
war-related industries.
Witnessed European governments gradually take full
control of all aspects of their economies.
Did little to affect the domestic industries of European
nations.
Brought considerable prosperity to all of the belligerent
nations.
Public Order and Public Opinion
Dealing with unrest
• Use of military to break up strikes
• Police powers were expanded to include the arrest of all
dissenters
• Loss of freedom of speech
• Liberals and Socialists opposed the war because of wide scale
human slaughter, nationalism and militarism
Defense of the Realm Act
• British arrested dissenters and traitors
Propaganda to boost morale for the war effort
•
•
•
•
•
Work or fight campaigns
Music as propaganda
Germans “The Watch on the Rhine”
Americans “Over There”
British “The Old Barbed Wire”
Social Impact of Total War
Labor benefits – allowed unions, gained higher
wages
New roles for women
•
•
•
•
Male concern over wages
Women began to demand equal pay
Gains for women
After the war, women demand the right to vote
Possible Test Question
As public morale and support for the war ebbed
Workers’ strikes became less frequent as they were
brutally repressed.
The liberal French government under Clemenceau
found it impossible to end internal dissent.
Propaganda posters and weapons became less
important.
Police powers were expanded to include the arrest of all
dissenters as traitors to the state.
Politicians attempted to end the war short of total
victory.
The Russian Revolution
War and Discontent
Nicholas II was an autocratic ruler
• Led the military
• Wife kept him isolated from the reality of domestic
disturbances
Russia not prepared for war
• Incompetent political leadership of Nicholas II
• Lack of guns and ammunition
• Over 2 million killed, 4-6 million wounded or captured
Influence of Rasputin (the mad monk)
• Holy man who influenced Tsar Nicolas’s wife and eventually
the Tsar’s decisions
• Series of military and economic disasters caused Russians to
lose faith in the Tsar
• Conservative aristocracy assassinated Rasputin
The March Revolution
Problems in Petrograd
• Bread rationing
March of the women, March 8, 1917
• Women marched through the streets “Peace and
Bread!”
Calls for a general strike
Soldiers join the marchers
Provisional Government takes control
• Tried to carry on the war
• Soviets sprang up – councils of workers and
soldiers
Bolsheviks under the leadership of Vladimir
Ulianov, 1870-1924
• Sent back to Russia in a sealed train by the
Germans
• April Theses – Lenin’s version of a Russian
socialist movement that skipped the
bourgeois revolution
• Promised “Peace, land and bread” to the
people
Possible Test Question
V.I. Lenin
Was a central figure in the establishment of a
provisional government.
Denounced the use of revolutionary violence in his
“April Theses.”
With strong middle-class support, led the formation of a
new, democratic labor party.
Remained in neutral Switzerland until the Armistice
was signed.
As a leader of the Bolsheviks, promised “land, peace,
and bread.”
Map 25.4: The Russian Revolution
Russian Revolution (cont)
The Bolshevik Revolution
Bolsheviks control Petrograd and Moscow soviets
Collapse of Provisional Government, November 6-7, 1917
Lenin ratifies redistribution of land and worker control of factories
to gain the support of the masses
Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, March 3, 1918
• Russian and German treaty
Civil War
Bolshevik (Red) army and Anti-Bolshevik (White) army
Murder of the Tsar and his family (July 16, 1918)
Disunity among the white army
Communists and “War communism”
• Military prevails due to ruthless discipline and the leadership of Leon
Trotsky.
• War Communism ensures regular supplies for the Red Army
Invasion of allied troops (support White army)
1921: Communists victory
Possible Test Question
Following the Bolshevik seizure of power in
November 1917
Lenin accelerated the war effort against Germany.
Lenin returned the control of factories to their rightful
owners.
Lenin ratified the redistribution of land which had
already been seized by peasants.
Lenin successfully managed to reestablish the Duma
under socialist control.
Lenin confiscated all the agricultural land in Russia,
forcing the peasants into large collective farms.
The Last Year of the War
Last German offensive, March 21-July 18, 1918
Allied counterattack, Second Battle of the Marne, July 18,
1918
German attack is repelled
Ends Germany’s final attempt to win the war
General Ludendorff informs German leaders that the war is
lost
William II abdicates, November 9, 1918
Republic established
Armistice, November 11, 1918
The Casualties of the War
8 to 9 million soldiers killed, 22 million wounded
1915 – Armenians rebelled against Ottoman Empire
• Ottoman Empire retaliated with what is known as the Armenian
holocaust, killing an estimated 1 million Armenians
Possible Test Question
In World War I, it is estimated that _____
soldiers died and _______ were wounded.
Three million, ten million
Five million, fifteen million
Six or seven million, eighteen million
Eight or nine million, twenty-two million
Twelve million, thirty million
Revolutionary Upheavals in Germany and Austria-Hungary
German November revolution of 1918
Series of mutinies & demonstrations
German socialists come to power
Division of German Socialists
• Majority favored parliamentary democracy in route to an
elimination of capitalism
• Radicals favored an immediate social revolution
Formation of two governments
Failure of radicals to achieve control
Communists attempt to seize power and are brutally repressed
• Left a fear of communism that Hitler would build upon
Revolution in Austria
Ethnic upheaval
Formation of independent republics based largely on
ethnicity
• Austria, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, & Yugoslavia
Possible Test Question
The German November revolution of 1918
eventually resulted in
A parliamentary democracy dominated by the
Republicans.
The division of Germany among the victorious
allies.
The creation of a communist state similar to the
Soviet Union.
The creation of a German Republic with the
socialists in power.
A return to the divided Germany that existed
before Bismarck.
The Peace Settlement
Palace of Versailles, January 1919, 27 Allied nations
Woodrow Wilson
Most important goal in the Paris Peace Conference was to assure
acceptance of his Fourteen Points
Lloyd George (GB) was determined to make Germany pay
Georges Clemenceau of France concerned with his nation’s
security
Wanted to punish Germany and make sure they could never wage
war against France again
January 25, 1919, the principle of the League of Nations
adopted but United States Senators do will not allow the
US to be included
The Treaty of Versailles
Five separate treaties (Germany, Austria, Hungary,
Bulgaria, and the Ottoman Empire)
The most important was the Treaty of Versailles,
June 18, 1919
Article 231, War Guilt Clause
Forced Germany to pay reparations to GB & France
100,000 man army
Eliminate Germany’s air force
Restrict the size of Germany’s navy
Loss of Alsace and Lorraine
Sections of Prussia to the new Polish state
Germans were outraged at the “dictated peace” but they
had to either accept it or go back to war where they
faced defeat
Possible Test Question
The feature of the Versailles Treaty that
most Germans found very hard to accept
was
The loss of land that reduced the nation by half.
The reductions imposed in the size of the
German military.
Article 231, the “War Guilt Clause” which
imposed heavy war reparations on Germany.
The loss of all political sovereignty for a period
of twenty years.
The loss of Germany’s Latin American empire.
The Other Peace Treaties
German and Russian Empires lost territory in eastern
Europe
WWI resulted in new nation-states in Eastern Europe:
Finland, Latvia, Estonia, Lithuania, Poland,
Czechoslovakia, Austria, and Hungary
Romania acquired additional lands from Russia, Hungary,
and Bulgaria
Compromises will lead to future problems
Minorities in every eastern European states
Ottoman Empire dismembered
Promises of independence of Arab states in the Middle East
Mandates (League of Nation term - imperialism)
• France – Lebanon and Syria
• Britain – Iraq and Palestine
United States Senate rejects the Versailles Peace Treaty
Map 25.5: Europe in 1919
The
Middle
East in
1919