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CHAPTER 25
THE BEGINNING OF THE TWENTIETH-CENTURY CRISIS:
WAR AND REVOLUTION
EXAMINATION QUESTIONS
Essays:
1. Discuss the causes of World War I: What were the major long-term causes of the war? How important
were the decisions made by European statesmen during the summer of 1914 in causing the war?
2. What nation, if any, played the biggest role in the start of World War I? Base your answer on the
actual events that preceded the conflict.
3. Discuss the course of the first two years of World War I: Why did many people expect a short war?
Why was it not a short war? Why did World War I become a “war of attrition”? Why did the warring
nations, worn out by the end of 1916, not make peace?
4. Why can 1917 be viewed as the year that witnessed the decisive turning point of World War I?
5. How did wartime governments maintain public order and mobilize public opinion during the course of
the war? Compare these actions with those taken by governments in previous wars.
6. Discuss the effects of World War I on political life, economic affairs, the social classes, and women.
7. Why is World War I the defining event of the twentieth century?
8. Write a brief history of the Russian Revolution by discussing the following questions: What caused the
Russian Revolution? How did Lenin and the Bolsheviks manage to seize and hold power despite their
small numbers? How did the Bolsheviks secure their power during the civil war?
9. What were the chief aims of the Paris Peace Conference? To what extent were these aims incorporated
into the actual peace treaties?
10. Can the Treaty of Versailles be viewed as a successful settlement of the war? Why or why not?
Identifications:
1. No Man’s Land
2. Black Hand
3. Gavrillo Princip
4. Sarajevo
5. “blank check”
6. the Schlieffen Plan
7. First Battle of the Marne
8. Battles of Tannenberg and Masurian Lakes
9. trench warfare
10. Verdun and the Somme
11. the machine gun and poison gas
12. Central Powers
13. Lawrence of Arabia
14. the Lusitania
15. unrestricted submarine warfare
16 tanks
17. “total war”
18. Germany’s War Raw Materials Board
19. Britain’s Ministry of Munitions
20. Hindenburg and Ludendorf
21. Georges Clemenceau
22. Ireland’s Easter Rebellion
23. DORA
25. the Nineteenth Amendment
25. Nicholas II and Alexandra
26. Rasputin
27. Petrograd
28. “Peace, land, and bread”
29. soviets
30. Bolsheviks
31. V.I. Lenin
32. the “April Theses”
33. Alexander Kerensky
34. Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
35. Reds and Whites
36. Leon Trotsky
37. “war communism”
38. Alexandra Kollontai and the Zhenotdel
39. the Cheka
40. Second Battle of the Marne
41. November 11, 1918
42. Karl Liebknecht and Rosa Luxemburg and the Free Corp
43. Woodrow Wilson’s Fourteen Points
44. Treaty of Versailles
45. League of Nations
46. Article 231
47. reparations
48. “dictated peace”
49. Yugoslavia
50. League of Nations’ mandates
Multiple Choice:
1. Which of the following trends helped lead to the outbreak of the Great War?
a. conservative leaders hoped to crush internal democratic movements through war
b. European generals adopted new military policies
c. European states felt they had to uphold the power of their allies for their own internal security
d. the downward spiral of European economies
e. the dismantling of Europe’s overseas empires
(page 718)
2. The First World War not only killed millions of human beings, it also destroyed one of the basic
intellectual precepts upon which recent Western Civilization had been founded:
a. the concept of a benevolent God
b. the belief in progress
c. the conviction of the enlightened spirit of man
d. the belief in justice for all
e. that spiritual beliefs and religious faith could overcome all challenges
(p. 718)
3. Before the outbreak of World War I in 1914, the general outlook for the future by most Europeans was
a. highly optimistic with material progress expected to create an earthly utopia.
b. one of extreme indifference and reckless abandon.
c. extremely negative, with most people believing that Armageddon was near.
d. largely determined by state agencies.
e. b and d
(p. 718)
4. The immediate cause of World War I was
a. an uprising of Catholic peasants in Bavaria.
b. the assassination of Austrian Archduke Francis Ferdinand in Sarajevo.
c. the German invasion of Poland.
d. the German naval blockage of Britain.
e. the French occupation of the Ruhr.
(p. 718)
5. Among nineteenth-century European political movements, the one most responsible for triggering
World War I was
a. nationalism.
b. liberalism.
c. conservatism.
d. socialism.
e. modernism.
(p. 718)
6. Between 1890 and 1914, in part through conscription, European military forces had
a. increased ten times.
b. quadrupled in size.
c. tripled in size.
d. doubled in size.
e. been reduced by half.
(p. 719)
7. The outbreak of the Great War was greatly accelerated by the Schlieffen Plan, which was
a. Germany’s promise of full-fledged support for Austrian military actions against Serbia.
b. the Black Hand’s plan for the assassination of Archduke Ferdinand of Austria.
c. Germany’s military plan to invade France through neutral Belgium before attacking Russia.
d. Russia’s mobilization plan against both Germany and Austria-Hungary.
e. the German emperor’s last attempt to persuade Russia not to mobilize its armies.
(p. 722)
8. The rivalry between which states for domination of southeastern Europe helped create serious tensions
before World War I?
a. Germany and Italy
b. Russia and Italy
c. the Ottoman Empire and Greece
d. Britain and France
e. Austria-Hungary and Russia
(pp. 719-720)
9. What was the state that was a thorn in Austria-Hungary's side and a primary cause of World War I?
a. Slovenia
b. Bulgaria
c. Greece
d. Italy
e. Serbia
(p. 720)
10. On the eve of the outbreak of war in Europe in 1914, William II of Germany
a. was plotting the overthrow of Nicholas II in Russia.
b. was intentionally provoking the Russians to attack Austria and set off a world war.
c. attempted to engage Nicholas II in a diplomatic dialogue to avoid war if at all possible.
d. sent ultimatums to England and France that were so clumsy and insulting as to make war
inevitable.
e. abdicated in favor of his son, the Crown Prince, and sought exile in Belgium.
(p. 721)
11. Austrian ultimatums to Serbia, hastening the outbreak of World War I, came, in part, because the
a. Austrians had received a “blank check” of German support and military backing.
b. English had refused to guarantee Serbian territorial integrity.
c. French did nothing to suggest that they might cancel their alliance with the Habsburgs.
d. Italians renewed their military alliance with Austria.
e. Russians had already mobilized their armed forces against Germany.
(p. 720)
12. In August 1914, the perception of the upcoming war among Europeans was that
a. it would be the dawn of a new socialist Europe.
b. the war would be very short, possibly only weeks in duration.
c. it would mark the end of European civilization.
d. its long-term nature would revive Europe's suffering economy.
e. it would be avoided at the last minute, once the diplomats finally met together.
(p. 722)
13. As early as July 28, 1914, European diplomats were becoming incapable of slowing a rush toward war
mainly because
a. European kings, tsars, and emperors were too bent on war to heed their advice.
b. the complex, rigid, and demanding mobilization plans devised by European army generals
made immediate military action essential.
c. ordinary people everywhere went to the polls and voted for immediate opening of the war on
all fronts.
d. European industrialists, seeking to profit from mass destruction, induced the politicians they
owned through bribery to push declarations of war through all European legislatures.
e. the slowness of communications in a pre-computer era.
(pp. 720-721)
14. Most Europeans believed that the Great War would
a. be much like the American Civil War in length.
b. be an exciting, emotional release from the otherwise dull and boring existence of mass society.
c. last for years creating a rousing state of perpetual heroics as proclaimed by Nietzsche in his
writings on the “superman.”
d. ultimately bring about the unification of Europe in one centralized and highly militarized
government.
e. result in a new balance of power throughout all of Western Civilization.
(p. 722)
15. The most important consequence of the first year of World War I was
a. a deadly stalemate on the western front as a result of the failure of German war plans.
b. Italy's decision to switch sides to the German-Austrian alliance.
c. the collapse of German armies on the Russian front.
d. Serbia's rapid advance into Austria-Hungary.
e. the Ottoman Empire’s decision to join the Triple Entente.
(pp. 722-723)
16. The development of trench warfare in France was characterized by
a. quick advances and seizures of enemy trenches.
b. fewer casualties due to thick fortifications.
c. long periods of boredom broken by artillery barrages and frontal assaults by enemy troops.
d. high morale and assurance of victory among the troops whose use of modern weapons reduced
casualty rates.
e. fraternization between the opposing armies.
(p. 725)
17. The First World War in the east was characterized by
a. more mobility than the trench warfare on the Western Front.
b. relatively little loss of life and small skirmishes.
c. trench warfare as in France.
d. the overwhelming superiority of Russian forces.
e. the quick conquest of western Russia and the Ukraine by German and Austrian forces.
(p. 723)
18. The usual tactic of trench warfare was to
a. surround the enemy and starve him into submission.
b. use heavy artillery bombardments and then launch direct frontal infantry assaults on welldefended enemy positions.
c. attempt to outflank the enemy through rapid and mobile deployment of troops and cavalry.
d. meet the opposing force on the "field of honor" between the trenches for hand-to-hand combat.
e. isolate the opposing forces and starve them into submission.
(p. 724)
19. As fought in the World War I, trench warfare
a. became a senseless slaughter of troops on all sides with hundreds of thousands of men dying
for battlefield gains of a few miles at best.
b. increased the morale of soldiers who fought well and came to obey promptly the orders of their
superiors.
c. became increasingly unreal as baffled and incompetent officers persistently ordered their men
to accomplish battlefield objectives that were impossible.
d. brought great innovations to military tactics as the long conflict forced generals to devise novel
tactics.
e. a and c
(pp. 724-725)
20. As soldiers on both sides realized that no one could gain an advantage in trench warfare
a. savage treatment of prisoners became commonplace.
b. new weapons were developed to kill rather than overrun the enemy.
c. daily life for the soldier became increasingly squalid and miserable in rat-infested trenches.
d. they were increasingly encouraged by their officers not to fight and to await a peace treaty
ending the war.
e. most of the participants on all sides simply quit active fighting and the war bogged down into a
stalemate.
(p. 725)
21. “The Watch on the Rhine,” a song that expressed deep patriotism and the heroism of fighting men,
was a favorite tune of the
a. British.
b. Americans.
c. French.
d. Belgians.
e. Germans.
(p. 729)
22. The tank
a. was invented by the Germans.
b. was crucial in the outcome of World War I.
c. would play a larger role in World War II than in World War I.
d. was useless in rough terrain.
e. a and b
(pp. 728-729)
23. The entry of the United States into World War I in April 1917
a. gave the nearly-defeated allies a psychological boost.
b. was greatly feared by the German naval staff.
c. was a response to Turkey's entrance into the war on the side of the Central Powers.
d. put an end to Germany's use of unlimited submarine warfare.
e. was an attempt to keep Russia in the war after the February Revolution.
(p. 727)
24. The chief reason for the United States’ entry into World War I was
a. the success of British propaganda.
b. German violations of the principles of neutrality and freedom of the seas.
c. the expulsion of the American consul from Berlin.
d. diplomatic chicanery on the part of the Austrians.
e. the threat by Mexico to invade the southwestern United States.
(p. 727)
25. Economically, World War I
a. saw European governments adopt a “hands off” policy toward their economies.
b. saw European governments all take control of only war-related industries.
c. witnessed European governments gradually take full control of all aspects of their economies.
d. did little to affect the domestic industries of European nations.
e. brought considerable prosperity to all of the belligerent nations.
(p. 730)
26. In World War I, the Turkish Ottoman Empire fought on the side of
a. Egypt and Iraq.
b. Russia.
c. Italy.
d. France and Britain.
e. Austria and Germany.
(p. 725)
27. The fact that European states fighting in World War I had to effectively organize masses of men and
material for years of deadly combat led to
a. increased centralization and expansion of government powers.
b. economic regimentation of entire countries.
c. unscrupulous manipulation of public opinion through mass propaganda and government control
of information.
d. a and b
e. all of the above
(pp. 729-731)
28. As public morale and support for the war ebbed
a. workers’ strikes became less frequent as they were brutally repressed.
.
b. the liberal French government under Clemenceau found it impossible to end internal dissent.
c. propaganda posters and weapons became less important.
d. police powers were expanded to include the arrest of all dissenters as traitors to the state.
e. politicians attempted to end the war short of total victory.
(p.732)
29. The capable French wartime leader Georges Clemenceau uttered perhaps the only observation on
World War One worthy of memory when he said
a. “Who would have thought that this war would go on so long and at so great a human price?”
b. “War is too important to be left to generals.”
c. “War is the hygiene of modern humanity.”
d. “Without war there would be no technological progress and no promise of future profits for
industry.”
e. “War is hell.”
(p. 731)
30. Internal opposition to the war in European nations came largely from
a. factory owners and businessmen ruined by wartime inflation.
b. liberals and socialists appalled by the scale of human slaughter and the costs of rampant
nationalism and militarism.
c. government ministers terrified of losing complete control over armies and the civilian
populations being fed into military formations.
d. ethnic minorities and women convinced that they would lose newly won rights as the war
progressed and encouraged repressive government policies.
e. the lower classes who were drafted or conscripted into the armies and fought in the trenches.
(p. 732)
31. The women workers of World War I played an important role in
a. serving as support troops behind the front line trenches.
b. gaining equal industrial wages with men by the end of the war.
c. achieving permanent job security in the once male-dominated workplace.
d. all work areas except the textile industry.
e. gaining women the right to vote immediately following the war.
(p. 735)
32. Death rates at the front in World War One were high for all soldiers engaged regardless of their prior
social status, but mortality was especially great among
a. junior officers drawn largely from the aristocracy.
b. non-commissioned officers of the urban middle class.
c. unskilled laborers and peasants comprising the mass of infantry troops.
d. skilled laborers serving disproportionately in the air forces.
e. a and c
(pp. 735-736)
33. One socioeconomic group that clearly benefited from World War I was
a. civil servants who received more powers and job security.
b. large industrialists, especially owners of factories making weapons and munitions.
c. young adults who received better, more technical training.
d. petty criminals who won release in wartime to work in factories.
e. rural landholders who profited by producing additional foodstuffs for the troops.
(p. 736)
34. The collapse of Russia’s tsarist regime in March 1917 was aided by all of the following except
a. the leadership of the Mensheviks in forming the new Provisional Government.
b. a general strike in Petrograd.
c. the wartime casualties due to incompetent military leadership and poor equipment.
d. strife in the ruling dynasty as evidenced by the influence of Rasputin, "the mad monk."
e. the incompetent political leadership of Nicholas II.
(pp. 736-737)
35. Which of the following statements best applies to Nicholas II’s tsarist regime?
a. Rasputin, an alleged holy man, ran a very efficient government.
b. Alexandra, Nicholas’ wife, kept him isolated from the reality of domestic disturbances.
c. It was patriotically supported by ordinary Russians throughout the war.
d. Many reforms were made to keep the peasants content.
e. Nicholas II was a brilliant and charismatic leader who was betrayed by his military advisors.
(p. 736)
36. V.I. Lenin
a. was a central figure in the establishment of a provisional government.
b. denounced the use of revolutionary violence in his “April Theses.”
c. with strong middle-class support, led the formation of a new, democratic labor party.
d. remained in neutral Switzerland until the Armistice was signed.
e. as a leader of the Bolsheviks, promised “land, peace, and bread.”
ANSWER: e (p. 738)
37. Lenin's “April Theses”
a. outlined a specifically Russian movement toward socialism without first going through a
bourgeois revolution.
workers, and peasants.
b. contained his proposals to continue Russian participation in World War I.
c. listed the conditions under which the Bolsheviks would accept a new republican form of
government.
d. argued that revolution was an impractical means of establishing a new government for Russia.
e. appealed to Russian patriotism, ignoring any social or economic class appeals.
(p. 738)
38. Following the Bolshevik seizure of power in November 1917
a. Lenin accelerated the war effort against Germany.
b. Lenin returned the control of factories to their rightful owners.
c. Lenin ratified the redistribution of land which had already been seized by peasants.
d. Lenin successfully managed to reestablish the Duma under socialist control.
e. Lenin confiscated all the agricultural land in Russia, forcing the peasants into large collective
farms.
(p. 739)
39. Even though facing tremendous odds against a successful seizure of power, the Bolsheviks prevailed
in the end due to
a. poor discipline among the Mensheviks.
b. aid from the French and British.
c. poor leadership among the socialists.
d. ruthless discipline and leadership in part due to the military efforts of Leon Trotsky.
e. aid from Imperial Germany.
(p. 741)
40. The Second Battle of the Marne was
a. the end of Germany’s final, futile effort to win the war.
b. the decisive victory Germans had long sought.
c. a disaster for the French.
d. decided by the entry of Australia into the war.
e. ended in a stalemate, and thus the war continued.
(p. 742)
41. In World War I, it is estimated that _________ soldiers died and ________ were wounded.
a. three million, ten million
b. five million, fifteen million
c. six or seven million, eighteen million
d. eight or nine million, twenty-two million
e. twelve million, thirty million
(p. 742)
42. The ethnic group that suffered a million dead as victims of genocide during World War I were the
a. Serbians.
b. Russians.
c. Irish.
d. Turks.
e. Armenians.
(pp. 742-743)
43. The series of revolutionary upheavals in central Europe following Germany's defeat led to
a. the successful creation of a new socialist state in Germany led by Karl Liebknecht.
b. a military dictatorship in Austria headed by the Free Corps.
c. the immediate creation of several Fascist states in the region.
d. a strong communist influence among most of the German populace.
e. the creation of several independent republics within the old Austro-Hungarian Empire. (p.
743)
44. The German November revolution of 1918 eventually resulted in
a. a parliamentary democracy dominated by the Republicans.
b. the division of Germany among the victorious allies.
c. the creation of a communist state similar to the Soviet Union.
d. the creation of a German Republic with the socialists in power.
e. a return to the divided Germany that existed before Bismarck.
(p. 743)
45. All of the following states were created out of the Austro-Hungarian Empire following World War I
except
a. Austria.
b. Hungary.
c. Poland.
d. Czechoslovakia.
e. Yugoslavia
(p. 743)
46. For Woodrow Wilson, the most important thing after the war was to
a. punish Germany by requiring economic sanctions.
b. assure acceptance of his Fourteen Points.
c. deepen America’s isolationism from European affairs.
d. bring about the disintegration of the Soviet Union.
e. dismember the defeated German Empire back to its pre-1866 borders.
(p. 744)
47. The chief motivation of Georges Clemenceau’s terms of armistice was to
a. punish Germany and gain security for France.
b. help Germany become a democracy.
c. maintain a demilitarized Europe.
d. limit Britain's influence on the continent.
e. establish the League of Nations.
(p. 744)
48. The Treaty of Versailles
a. absolved the Central Powers of full guilt in causing the war.
b. created Wilson's United Nations.
c. created a system by which the old Turkish Empire could be safely dismantled.
d. dismembered the Ottoman Empire.
e. forced Germany to acknowledge “war guilt” and to pay reparations for its alleged
wartime aggression.
(pp. 745)
49. The feature of the Versailles Treaty that most Germans found very hard to accept was
a. the loss of land that reduced the nation by half.
b. the reductions imposed in the size of the German military.
c. Article 231, the “War Guilt Clause” which imposed heavy war reparations on Germany.
d. the loss of all political sovereignty for a period of twenty years.
e. the loss of Germany’s Latin American empire.
(p. 745)
50. As a result of World War I, Eastern Europe
a. experienced little or no real change.
b. fell subject to the new Russian communist state.
c. witnessed the emergence of many new nation-states.
d. quickly overtook western Europe economically.
e. sunk into widespread international anarchy and chaos.
(p. 746)
True-False:
1. World War I was the defining event of the twentieth century.
(page 718)
2. In the Balkans crisis of the summer of 1914, Russia gave diplomatic support to Austria-Hungary in the
hope of restraining Germany’s William II from ordering an invasion of Russia.
e (p. 720)
3. Most Europeans went to war in 1914 with considerable concern, fear, and trepidation.
(p. 722)
4. One of the most fearsome battles of World War I was fought at Verdun, where 700,000 soldiers lost
their lives in just a few months.
(p. 724)
5. The United States entered World War I in 1917 on the side of Britain and France after a German
expeditionary force occupied several neutral islands in the Caribbean.
(p. 727)
6. In World War I, the participating states gave industrialists and businessmen greater freedom and
independence from government regulations under the assumption that laissez-faire capitalism would be
more efficient and productive in achieving the hoped-for victory.
(pp. 729-730)
7. Austria-Hungary, Italy, and Russia had much less success that Britain, France, and Germany in
mobilizing their societies for total war.
(p. 731)
8. Because of sexual discrimination and traditional conservative attitudes, women played little role in
World War I.
e (pp. 733-735)
9. After the successful Bolshevik Revolution of November 1917, Lenin abolished the democratically
elected Constituent Assembly and, in effect, established a dictatorship.
(p. 739)
10. At the Paris Peace Conference that ended World War I, thanks to Woodrow Wilson’s principle of
self-determination the borders of the countries of eastern Europe were successfully drawn according to
neat ethnic lines.
(pp. 746-747)