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Age of Anxiety: 1920’s: Consequences of World War I and Versailles 1930’s: Great Depression and aftermath; WWII begins New Governments New nations from Versailles: new governments answerable to the people Results of Revolution: new governments Russia: toward utopia Defeated and Victor nations: more democratic governments Germany Austria Hungary France Italy Challenges to Democratic Rule Harsh reality of economic conditions Aggressive nationalism Political conservatism Lack of experience and skill Distrust from upper classes Versailles Aftermath German objections E Europe Objections Treated unfairly New national boundaries don’t satisfy nationalists French objections Humiliation to militaristic, nationalistic, proud Reparations payments outlandish % of country’s economy Believed provisions of treaty not adequately enforced Italian objections Not rewarded sufficiently No empire: wanted African colonies as “reward” for WWI alliance Costs of WWI Men: Lost Generation 750,000 Brit; 1,385,000 Fr; 1,808,000 Ger; 1,7000,000 Russ; other nations = combat deaths; Countless wounded, crippled by attacks, gas Loss of an entire generation + disillusionment of rest Destruction of financial dominance and independence of Europe Debts from war costs, especially to US Bolshevik repudiation of Russ debts No cooperation or forgiveness of indebtedness: no nation completely in control of own economy Infrastructure Destruction and Interruption Transport facilities, mines industry Multitude of small states: no trade region as Germany and Austria/Hungarian empire Russia: complete redistribution Poor conditions of agriculture because of relocation of farmers, disruption, US competition Loss of International markets US and Japan inroads into former Euro colonies; Latin America and Asia while Europe tied up in war Development of Communism [See Russ Revolution presentation] Comintern vow to spread revolution to all capitalist countries + “in”ness of Communism as econ/polit/social philosophy for intellectuals = threat to all established governments Fear of “communist conspiracies” became the way fascist and other conservative parties rallied people against more liberal governments Fascism: ultra conservative, nationalistic, totalitarianism Term fascist from Mussolini Antidemocratic, antiMarxist, anticommunist, antiparliamentary, mostly antiSemitic To make world “safe” for middle class, small business, middle class propertied, small farmers Rejected 19th C liberalism Nationalist in response to “international” socialism Believed that normal parliamentary politics and parties sacrificed national pride to inconsequentials, masses Unity of all for glory of fatherland: single party dictatorhips Ends justify means: terrorism, police state Ironically: based in support of masses for fascist political parties vs USSR Communists imposed by minority Italy: Turmoil that made Mussolini Fasci di Combattimento (“Bands of Combat”) 1919 Milan war vets Mussolini, leader Felt Versailles cheated of fruits of victory resented that It didn’t get Fiume (Adriatic seaport) Hated war-caused inflation destroying middle class Feared spread of socialism Son of blacksmith; teacher, day laborer Editor of socialist newspaper, but broke w socialists over his support of Italian entry into WWI Served in army, wounded, Opportunist, changing principles to gain power; took advantage of situation Italian nationalists Weakness of Parliament during war: ministers ruled All felt Italy humiliated by Allies: not paid attention Abriele D’Annunzio lead group that seized Fiume; driven out: embarrassed Italian government Internal social turmoil Strikes and unrest: workers occupied factories and peasants seized uncultivated land from owners Parliament at a standstill: Socialist party had plurality in 1919 election (still combined with Communists) conservative Catholic Popular Party of working and agrarian classes None would cooperate to make laws, solve problems Fear that this social and political chaos would lead to Communist takeover Fascists on the Rise Early Organization Mussolini watching the way the wind blew First wanted factory occupation, land seizure Then saw middle class no sympathy for workers or peasants: wanted order, protection of own interests Direct action in face of government inaction Local squads of terrorists (Black Shirts) to disrupt Socialist and other opposition parties (violence, intimidation) Arson, beatings and murder of local officials that opposed them: controlled city government in most of N Italy by 1922 Law ignored Fascist squads Mussolini Gains Power: March on Rome Power in parliament 1921 elections Black Shirt of fascists march on Rome Victor Emmanuel III refused decree authorizing army to stop them Cabinet resigned in protest Victor Emmanuel III invited Mussolini to become prime minister Technically: legitimately elected: not really because of terrorism and intimidation Fascists in Power Consolidation of power Repression of opposition By elections, took over ministry and passed laws to enforce single party dictatorship Terrorist squads made government militia, execute major opposition leaders Organization and propaganda Impotence of rivals Ruthlessness 1922: king, Parl give dictatorial authority for 1 year to reestablish order Every government institution, corresponding party organization Fascist local control Cult of personality: m’s oratory and intelligence Belief M. saved Italy from Communists Accord with Vatican Lateran Accord 1929: Pope temporal ruler Vat. City, Catholicism = state relig; $$ for confiscated church property 1860’s France: joyless victory Conservative government “Blue Horizon Chamber” from uniformed vet members Defeat of Clemenceau 1920 president bid Alleged leniency of Versailles: didn’t get Rhineland state No domestic reform; vs German and vs Russ Comm Polit instability: 27 different cabinets 1919-1933 New Alliances Enforce clauses of Versailles to keep Germany weak Replace alliance with Russ with E. European nations Little Entente: Czech, Rom, Yugo Poland (not in Little Entente cause fight with Czech over border) Rapallo Treaty: Germany + Russia (trained Nazis) felt excluded Quest for Reparations Germany in default of reparations payments 1923 Under Poincare, France occupied Ruhr Germany calls for passive resistance (general strike in Ruhr) English alienated, suspicious of France Occupation by France increased inflation and hurt economy Britain: Post War Mess Asquith vs Lloyd George “a land fit for heroes to live in” Rallying cry, but economy depressed Million unemployed on dole with little hope of jobs First Labor Government: During war, coalition government Divided rule of Asquith and Lloyd George, both liberals, Lloyd George supported by dominant conservatives Baldwin, conservative, abandoned free trade and tariffs so lost power Ramsay MacDonald, 1st Labour pm with socialist platform: social reforrm General strike of 1926 Baldwin back in office; tried to reestablish prewar trade and gold standard, but made Eng goods too expensive; Cut in wages and breakdown in negotiations in coal, minors on strike 9 day general strike of all workers: new housing and poor law reform Unrest Abroad Empire: rise of Gandhi in India, asking for government and own tariffs Ireland: Home Rule Bill passed during war, with understanding not in force until war’s end BUT, Easter Uprising 1916 (war still on) in Dublin British executed nationalist leaders Sinn Fein (“ourselves alone”) took leadership 1919 declared Irish Independence, and military wing became Irish Republican Army (IRA) Guerilla war between IRA and “black and tans” (Eng army) 1921 Irish Free State in British Commonwealth Ulster: six counties in N. Ireland Civil war: supporters of treaties and those who do not Germany: Weimar Republic Weimar Seeds of Failure Associated with Versailles Treaty, signed under threat of invasion Struggled with war reparations, other dictates of Versailles Military, aristocracy blamed the republic for their defeat Constitutional Flaws (for city where Constitution being written) With defeat of imperial army, hope of democratic republic Proportional representation in Reichstag: minor parties, too Article 48: president rules by decree in emergency Lack of Broad Popular Support Myth that military only surrendered cause of treason at home Kapp Putsch: rebellion in Berlin lead by conservative civil servant supported by army officers: failed, but undermined Strikes and unrest extremism from right and left; violence, assassination Economic disaster: reparations bill 132 billion gold marks Germany on the brink of disaster Economic disaster War debt = inflation for all currency devalued (mark to $ = 1914 4.2:1; 1921 64:1 Invasion of Ruhr and general strike = more inflation Unemployment from Ruhr spread to rest of country 1923 800,000,000 marks to 1 dollar Real estate speculators and farmers did well, middle class pensions and savings wiped out Rise of Nazism: Adolf Hitler Early life During the War Son of minor Austrian customs official Hopes as artist dashed in Vienna; total failure Absorbed anti Semitism, hatred of Marxism German army gave him purpose: wounded Rank of corporal and Iron Cross After the War Munich Small, nationalistic, anti Semitic political party, National Socialist German Workers’ Party (Nazis); Red and white with black swastika banner Storm Troopers (SA_ instrument for terror, paramilitary 25 points: repudiation of Versailles Unification of Austria and Germany Exclusion of Jews from German citizenship Agrarian reform, prohibition of land speculation, confiscation of war profits State sdministration of cartels, replacement of large with small shops Socialism = subordination of all to state Beer Hall Putsch Hitler and General Ludendorff attempt coup against the government in beer hall in Munich Unsuccessful, 16 killed nazis killed, Hitler and Ludendorff arrested. General acquitted, Hitler used trial as a podium to preach Nazism: condemned republic, Versailles treaty, Jews Hitler convicted: sentenced to five years, served only a few months in jail During jail, wrote Mein Kampf (“My Struggle”); decided to manipulate system and seize power legally Stresemann tries to make the republic work Reconstruction of Germany Growing sense of confidence Abandoned passive resistance in Ruhr New currency (1 trillion old marks for 1 rentenmark) Dawes plan (named after US proponent) lowered annual payments of reparations, allowed to vary w Ger economy Crushed Hitler and Communist disturbances Economic stability: more for all; employment up Hindenburg election Stresemann resigned as president to be foreign minister with secret aims of recovering German speaking territories in Poland, Czechoslavakia Election of Hindenburg, military hero monarchist (Germany more conservative) Locarno and Other Agreements Lucarno Agreement (1925) Stresemann begged for “fresh start” for Germany, change in Versailles Treaty provisions Spirit of conciliation in Chamberlain (Britain) and Briand (France) Adjusting boundaries: France and Germany accept Germany’s W. boundary (Versailles est) French troops out of Ruhr by 1930 Britain and Italy to intervene if either France or Britain pushed into Rhine Treaties of arbitration with Poland and Czechoslavakia Italy included as “Great Power” Entry of Germany into League of Nations Kellogg Briand Pact 1928 Major European powers, Japan and US Renounced “war as an instrument of national policy” Young plan Again, proposed by US businessman Lowered reparation payments, limited how long Germany no longer supervised, controlled by outside 1929: Start of the Great Depression Causes of the Great Depression Financial Crisis: outcome of Versailles Problems of production/distribution in World Markets: agricultural crisis Lack of economic cooperation or leadership Financial Crisis from the peace Reparations and War Debts France paid reparations 1815, 1871 and expected Germany to do the same; finance France’s recovery from WWI US wanted repayment from Allied loans, other European nations counted on reparations to help repay (mostly to US) Britain wanted redefinition (We’ll only require France, others to repay as much as US demands we repay; US wouldn’t decrease demands) Currency speculations meant no money going into capital investments; tariffs high so balance of payments not awful Unleashed inflation After armistice, demand for consumer/industrial goods drove up prices, which drove up wages Currencies couldn’t keep value, especially German Whoops! It all crashes! Dominoes: American influence Dawes Plan: organizes reparations and debt repayment to US Handy: US in good shape invests in Europe, especially Germany—short term loans BUT 1928 American money invested into booming stock market instead Wall Street Crash October 1929 result of unregulated financial speculation results in bank failure; No money for Europe; loans not renewed End of reparations Because of American crash, European crash: Kreditanstalt, major Vienna Bank creditor all E Europe, collapsed German banking system only saved by government ; no longer make reparations payments Hoover declares 1 year moratorium on war debts; France has to go along Lausanne Conference 1932: ends reparations GREAT DEPRESSION deepens Expanded agricultural world wide = prices down Better methods of farming, better varieties of wheat, expanded farming acreage, better transport worldwide = more production Glut on world market = Prices down, good for consumer, but lower income for farmers, especially Euro breadbasket of E/Central Euro Land reform in E Euro Romania and Czechoslovakia (less in Poland and Hungary) meant smaller farms, inefficient No money = no demand for European goods Demand for Euro goods shrank relative to production Idle factories, fewer jobs=prices up, fewer still could buy Farmers couldn’t repay loans = banks down Britain’s Response Labour government (Ramsay Macdonald) Unemployment up to 2.5 million Macdonald thought budget slash, government cut in salaries, unemployment benefits cut would help Ministers refused to take income from poor and unemployed Divide in government: all thought MacD would resign National Government Coalition government formed by MacD with Labour, Conservative, Liberal made Labour mad (thought sold out) 1931 won elections, but MacD became tool of conservatives who had majority in Commons What the National Government did: 3 decisive steps Balance budget: raised taxes, cut insurance benefits to unemployed and pensioners, lowered government salaries Argued that with fall in prices, no real income cut Went off gold standard: pound fell 30%, stimulated exports, but only a little Import Duties Bill: 10% ad valorem tariff (proportion to value of item) on all except empire imports Results Avoided banking crisis Industrial production up (first to reestablish prewar levels) Housing boom Other Responses Orwell Road to Wigan Pier about those still unemployed showed many still hurt Demonstrations by unemployed, but social insurance (dole) did support them Extreme right wing proposed; many supported, but not able to take over Sir Oswald Mosley: British Union of Fascist Encouraged direct action; Black shirts and antisemitism, but didn’t have wide support France: The Popular Front Great Depression in France Later and longer than Britain Wages lowered, but not so much unemployment Relations between labor and management tense Tariffs protected French agriculture Election of Radical coalition government Deflationary policies to head off economic tragedy Reparations payments stopped: depression begins Right Wing Violence Right wing groups wanted change Action Francaise founded before WWI Croix de Feu (Cross of Fire) army vets Some wanted monarchy, some military rule; hostile to parliamentary government, socialism, communism Above all, nationalistic: greater good and glory of France above political parties Stavisky incident: government loses prestige A gangster with government ties, involved in fraudulent bond scheme Tracked down by police: suicide in January 1934 Political coverup to protect government 1934 Violent Demonstration Right wing leagues with uncertain purpose March to Chamber of Deputies Right and left begin to fight; both fight with police 14 killed, many injured Radicals resigned, replaced with coalition of all living former premiers; left realizes danger of right wing takeover as in Reaction Socialist/Communist Cooperation French Socialists, lead by Leon Blum, usually target of French Communtists, but cooperated because of rt threat Popular Front of all left wing parties 1935 Elections 1936 gave them majority in Chamber of Deputies Blum Government Blum = successor to Jaures, assassinated in 1914; Jewish intellectual/humanitarian Strikes spread throughout French industry, especially after election Blum brought labor and management together: Raised civil servant salaries, program of public works, loans to small industry, nationalized some armaments Wheat Board to manage grain production and sales Devaluated currency, but too late to help industry Reaction to the Reaction Conservative bankers and business complained to ministry to halt reform Popular Front didn’t want compromise Blum Resigns; ministry holds on for awhile Popular Front replaced by Radicals under Daladier Depression in industry continues until war intervenes Germany: Nazi Seizure of Power Depression Leads to Political Deadlock Prosperity of Weimar gone when Am $$ withdrawn Coalition of centrist and Social Demos split in face of depression Von Hindenburg appointed Bruning, who ruled through decrees (Article 48) = authoritarian, but not effective Persistent unemployment and unhappiness Hitler Comes to Power 1928 Nazis as seats in Reichstag; 1930 = 107; Comm 77 Unemployed join stormtroopers (SA) which went from 100,000 to 1 million (1933) Vicious attacks on Communists and Social Demos, who also fought each other Nazi “religious revival” rallies with supporters in business, military, press 1932 election 83 year old von Hindenburg vs Hitler : Hitler got 30% in first vote, 36.8 % in runoff election In light of elections, Hindenburg dismissed Bruning and put in von Papen as chancellor, one of very conservative group controlling Hindenburg Hitler becomes a dictator Hindenburg wanted mass support only Nazis seemed to have, Removed ban on Nazi meetings Bruning imposed called for election July 1932, where Nazis won 37%; Hitler demanded to be chancellor; Hindenburg refused; called another elections where Nazi support dipped to 33% Papen resigned, General von Schliecher chancellor, but almost civil war between right and left; conservatives didn’t trust general, so decided to appoint Hitler von Papen as vice chancellor, other conservative ministers in cabinet to control Hitler Hitler, however, had too much popular support; took over government HITLER GAINED INITIAL POWER LEGALLY Hitler Consolidates Power Hitler’s political strength Mass politics Propaganda Support in country (farmers, vets, young) Promised security vs communists and socialists, effective government instead of party politics, nationalist vision Three facet consolidation of power Capture of full legal authority Firing of Reichstag building in Berlin by mentally ill Dutch Communist Took advantage of “Communist threat” Article 48 chancellor could take full power with Emergency Decree: Hitler suspended all civil liberties, arrested communists New election: 43.9% to Nazis, but removed all Communists Reichstag passed Enabling Act: Hitler rule by decree alone with no limits to his power Crushing of all external opposition Nazi power seized offices, banks, newspapers of opposition and arrested leaders; outlawed other parties; Only National Socialists (Nazis) allowed Purging of Rivals within the own party Ernst Roehm commander of SA rival to Hitler; Hitler ordered his murder, and also that of other SA chief officers (100 killed July 1934) Police State and Anti Semitism Nazi Economic Policy Italy: Fascists Face Depression Economics Syndicates Corporations USSR: Central Economic Planning Decision for Rapid Industrialization Collectivization of Agriculture Foreign Reactions and Repercussions Purges