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Robert W. Strayer
Ways of the World: A Brief Global
History with Sources
Second Edition
Chapter 13
Political Transformations: Empires and Encounters,
1450–1750
Copyright © 2013 by Bedford/St. Martin’s
I. European Empires in the Americas
A. The European Advantage
1. Geography and winds
2. European marginality, land-hunger, and social drives
3. Organization and technology
4. Local allies
5. Germs
I. European Empires in the Americas
B. The Great Dying
1. 60–80 million people without immunities
2. Old-World diseases
3. Demographic collapse
I. European Empires in the Americas
C. The Columbian Exchange
1. People brought germs, plants, and animals
2. Corn and potatoes to Europe, Africa, and Asia
3. American tobacco and chocolate, Chinese tea, and
Arab coffee
4. Silver, slaves, and sugar
5. Europe the biggest winner
II. Comparing Colonial Societies in the
Americas
A. In the Land of the Aztecs and the Incas
1. Encomienda, repartimiento, and hacienda
2. Creoles and peninsulares: “Purity of blood”
3. Mestizo and castas
4. Indians
II. Comparing Colonial Societies in the
Americas
B. Colonies of Sugar
1. Portuguese Brazil’s monopoly (1570–1670)
2. Labor intensive and an international mass market
3. African slaves and mulattoes
The West experienced
increased contact from
the 12th century…the
Crusades, new imports, contact
with the Mongols, etc.
The First Steps
of Western Expansion
By the 13th Century,
Europeans were pushing
for expansion of trade.
The Fall of the
Yuan empire (Mongols)
hurt European trade efforts.
The increasing strength
of the Ottoman Empire hurt
European trade efforts.
Lack of gold and poor
naval technology also hurt
European trade attempts.
I. The West Expands
A. New Technology
1. Deep-draft ships… better
on ocean voyages
a. Armaments better…
allowed the use of
cannon
b. Compasses, mapmaking help navigation
B. European Leaders: Portugal and Spain
1. Prince Henry the Navigator…Portugal
a. He helped these early explorations
by sponsoring many of them
2. Other Portuguese expeditions along African coast…WHY?
a. 1488, pass Cape of Good Hope
b. 1497, Vasco da Gama reaches India
c. 1514, Portuguese to Indonesia, China
3. Columbus…To the Americas (1492); sailed
for Spain
a. Spain searched in the opposite direction
of Portugal by sailing west
4. Ferdinand Magellan…Spain
a. 1519, begins circumnavigation of the world
5. Spain ended up with the Americas and the Philippines.
Portugal had bases in India (Goa), Indonesia, China
(Macao), Japan, and Brazil.
6. The Treaty of Tordesillas (1494), negotiated by the pope,
split the world between Portugal (Eastern hemisphere) and
Spain (Western hemisphere)
C. Northern Europe Gets Into the Act
1. England, France, and the Netherlands began to lead
exploration and expansion in the late 1500s…profit was
the chief motive.
a. 1588, English defeat Spanish Armada…this put the
Northern European countries into a position of
dominance
b. 1534, French cross the Atlantic…settle Canada,
Mississippi valley
c. 1497, British sail to North America; by the 1600s,
begin colonization…searching for Northwest Passage
d. Dutch
--Holdings in North America and Indonesia
2. Much activity was through trading companies chartered by
the government. Companies were given trade monopolies
and could even raise armies and coin money
a. The Dutch East India Company ejected
Portugal from Spice Islands (Indonesia) and
dominated spice trade.
b. The British East India Company played
great role in colonizing India.
c. France established a vibrant fur trade in Canada.
d. All established colonies in the Caribbean
where they set up sugar plantations.
Led to large population increases
in Europe and Asia!
II. Toward a World Economy
A. The Columbian Exchange
1. New World crops spread to Europe such as
corn, potatoes, sweet potatoes, and tobacco.
2. Animals such as horses and cattle were
brought to the New World.
3. Europeans brought diseases such as
Smallpox while the
Native-Americans
returned the favor by
giving Europeans
syphilis. People in
both the Americas
and Polynesian lacked
natural resistance…they
died in great numbers.
The “Columbian Exchange”

Squash

Avocado

Peppers

Sweet Potatoes

Turkey

Pumpkin

Tobacco

Quinine

Cocoa

Pineapple

Cassava

POTATO

Peanut

TOMATO

Vanilla

MAIZE

Syphilis

Trinkets

Liquor

GUNS

Olive

COFFEE BEAN

Banana

Rice

Onion

Turnip

Honeybee

Barley

Grape

Peach

SUGAR CANE

Oats

Citrus Fruits

Pear

Wheat

HORSE

Cattle

Sheep

Pigs

Smallpox

Flu

Typhus

Measles

Malaria

Diptheria

Whooping Cough
B. Although Muslims and Asians continued to trade, Europeans
dominated ocean shipping due to military superiority.
1. By defeating the Ottoman Turks in 1571, Europeans
controlled the Western Mediterranean.
2. European traders set up posts and ports in many African
and Asian civilizations – allowing them to influence
these civilizations.
C. Trade Imbalances
1. Spain initially gained great power and wealth from its
New World colonies but numerous wars (primarily
religious wars) eventually bankrupted the state.
2. Portugal became over-extended and lost trade to the
Dutch, England, and France.
3. Mercantilism helped Northern Europe become powerful,
dominant trade states.
a. Nations import raw materials from colonies and ship
finished products to colonies for sale.
b. Nations deny imports but push exports…emphasis on
favorable balance of trade.
c. National industries are protected through tariffs and
subsidies.
This push for cheap raw materials, cheap manufactured
goods, and the desire for European imports throughout
many of the colonized areas helped stimulate the demand
for a coercive labor system…slavery. WHY?
D. World Trade???? – Some areas were left unaffected
1. Initial contacts with Japan were cut off as Japan closed
itself to the world during the 17th to 19th centuries.
2. The Muslim “Gunpowder” empires (Ottomans, Safavids,
Mughals) readily traded with the West but with little
governmental interest.
3. Much of Russian trade
focused on its eastern
lands and not with
Europe.
4. Other than slave-trading,
Africa remained an
outsider to trade.
5. Other than the Dutch Spice Islands, Southeast Asia
remained apart from expanding world trade networks.
6. China deliberately closed itself off from the world –
ignoring new technologies from the West. China
exported but did not want Western goods.
a. China mostly traded for European gold and silver.
E. Europeans Continue to Expand
1. Mughal Empire declines in
India…British, French move in; will
eventually lead to war.
2. Eastern Europe begins to export
grain to the West…was primarily
produced by serfs on large estates
III. European Colonial Expansion
A. The Americas
1. Spain quickly begins colonization of the new world
a. West Indies were first
Reasons forb. 1509, Panama – Balboa
explorationsc. Aztec (Cortes), Incas (Pizarro)
conquered
are often
--Area was loosely supervised by
described
conquistadors
as “God,
--Search for gold
Gold, and
Glory!” d. Administration develops as
agriculture grows
--missionary activity also grows
2. North America
a. From 17th century
--French: Canada, Mississippi
--Dutch, English: Atlantic seaboard
--West Indies: colonized by all three
B. British and French North America
1. Different pattern from Latin America…North America was
populated by religious refugees…primarily from England.
Land grants were also offered to attract settlers.
2. Canada – the French wanted to establish estates
controlled by state. As in France, the Catholic church
was influential.
3. 1756 – 1763…Seven Years War (French & Indian War)
a. Treaty of Paris (1763) – French relinquish Canada,
Mississippi River basin to British
--Was a “world war”…doubled the size of Britain’s
debt…led to higher taxes on American colonists and
eventually, the American Revolution
b. Little merging of natives and immigrants unlike Latin
America where entire new social classes were formed
c. Enlightenment ideas popular with American colonists
d. European economic and political ideas took root with the
colonists
C. Africa and Asia
1. Barriers to colonization: climate, disease, geography…led
to the growth of coastal trading centers in both places
2. Exceptions to the coast: Expeditions into Africa
a. Angola – Portuguese slaving expeditions; destructive
b. South Africa – 1652, Dutch found Cape Town as a
way station for trips to Asia
-- Dutch settlers (Boers – farmers) moved into the
interior and came into conflict with the natives
3. Asia
a. Spain into Philippines – main task was conversion
b. Indonesia – Dutch East India Company
4. French and British fight for control of India as Mughal
power declines…1744, war begins…British win out
a. Initially, British administration was limited in India, as
it was in much of Asia and Africa…European powers
preferred to make agreements with local rulers
D. Impact on western Europe
1. Hostilities between countries exacerbated as the race for
colonization grew
a. Seven Years War – First global war…fighting in
Europe, Asia (mainly India), and the Americas
E. The Impact of a New World Order
1. Slave trade affects Africa…disrupts populations…How?
2. Latin America, eastern Europe were greatly affected by
slavery and serfdom respectively
II. Comparing Colonial Societies in the
Americas
C. Settler Colonies in North America
1. British get the leftovers
2. British society in transition
3. Class equality with gender inequality
4. Pure settler societies with little racial mixing
5. Protestantism and weak royal control
III. The Steppes and Siberia: The Making
of a Russian Empire
A. Experiencing the Russian Empire
1. Conquest and yasak
2. Settlers put pressure on pastoralists
III. The Steppes and Siberia: The Making
of a Russian Empire
B. Russians and Empire
1. Russia becomes multiethnic
2. Wealth of empire
3. Peter the Great (r. 1689–1725) and the West
4. Contact with China and Islam
5. What kind of empire?
IV. Asian Empires
A. Making China an Empire
1. Qing expansion in the West (1680–1760)
2. Colonial?
3. Economic downturn in Central Asia
IV. Asian Empires
B. Muslims and Hindus in the Mughal Empire
1. 20 percent Muslim
2. Akbar (r. 1556–1605)
3. Ahmad Sirhindi (1564–1624)
4. Aurangzeb (1658–1707)
IV. Mughal Empire
A. 1526…Founded by Babur, a Muslim, who claimed to
descend
from Tamerlane and Genghis
Khan
1. Invaded India from Kabul
and conquered the Delhi
Sultanate
--Using that city as
his base, he
expanded
into the
subcontinent
The Mughals nearly
Controlled the entire
subcontinent…hadn’t
been done before.
Babur
B. After Babur’s death the empire struggled until his
grandson, Akbar took control. He continued the
expansion until most of India was under his control
1. Although his empire appeared highly
centralized it was in reality a collection of
semi-independent states held together by
the emperor
2. The Mughal Empire was the greatest empire
Akbar
in India since the Mauryans
3. Although Muslim, Akbar adopted a policy of religious
tolerance
a. Hindus served in lesser positions in his court and
even
Christians were present in the form of advisors
--Eliminated the head tax on Hindus
b. Akbar even took a Hindu bride
4. Akbar’s Social Reforms
a. Women’s position improved
--Widows encouraged to remarry…attempted to
prohibit sati
b. Child marriages discouraged
5. Akbar’s Death…1605
a. Most reforms were unsuccessful, but, nonetheless, the empire was
very strong
b. Not much new territory was added by new rulers
c. India began to lag behind Europe in technological innovation
d. India continued to be a vibrant commercial empire…especially
exporting cotton textiles to Europe… most of the trade was
handled by Muslim merchants
e. Both peace and political stability (both during Akbar’s reign &
after it) = period of growth in trade and manufacturing
C. Jahangir (1605-1627) and Shah Jahan (1627-1658) succeed Akbar
1. Both continue Akbar’s policy of religious
toleration
2. Both preferred the arts over the military, which
they supported greatly
3. Women’s roles under them
a. Upper class women had better lives, while all
other women lost status and rights
Jahangir
b. Child marriage became more popular and
remarriage for widows decreased…sati increased in the upper classes
Shah Jahan
D. Shah Jahan’s Tribulations
1. In order to hold power, he had all rivals murdered
2. Shah Jahan’s military campaigns and corruption
in his court impoverished the state
3. Shah Jahan built Taj Mahal for deceased wife
4. His son, Aurangzeb, killed brother and imprisoned
Shah Jahan
E. Aurangzeb… Succeeds Shah Jahan…Beginning of the End
1. Programs
a. Wanted to rule all of India
b. Wanted to cleanse Islam of Hindu taint…ended
religious
toleration
2. By 1707, he controls most of India
a. Wars are very expensive and distracting…took him
away
from actually running the government
--Many revolts lead to the autonomy of local leaders
b. Hindus excluded from high office
c. Non-Muslims taxed…especially hard on the poor
d. Mughals and Hindus create a blended society…both
Muslims
and Hindus restricted women severely
e. Groups such as the Marattas and Sikhs challenged his
rule
F. Arrival of the Europeans…the real end
1. The Portuguese, Dutch, British, and French all sought influence
in India
2. Cities such as Goa, Bombay and Calcutta were centers of
European trade.
a. Increasing British influence under the East India Company
3. Industrial Revolution gave Britain the strength to take control in
India
IV. Asian Empires
C. Muslims and Christians in the Ottoman Empire
1. “The Sword of Islam”
2. Decrease in women’s autonomy yet many rights
3. New importance of Turkic people in the Islamic World
4. Balkan, Armenian, and Orthodox Christians
5. Devshirme
6. Fear and admiration in the Christian West
II. Rise to Power
A. Ottoman Turks began to build
power on northwest corner
of the Anatolian Peninsula.
1. With decline of Seljuk
Turks, they expanded and
founded the Ottoman dynasty
2. 1300’s: Ottomans expanded
into Balkan Peninsula
3. Janissaries: young boys taken from the Christian
population.
a. Boys were converted to Islam and
trained as elite soldiers or
administrators to serve the Sultan
4. Ottomans defeated the Serbs at the
Battle of Kosovo
a. Controlled the Balkan Peninsula
Janissarie
B. Constantinople
1. Under the leadership of Mehmet II, the Ottomans
laid siege to Constantinople
2. Fall of Constantinople in 1453 brought end to the
Byzantine Empire
a. Immediately began restoring the city.
3. The Ottomans made the city their capital renamingMehmet II enters
Constantinople
it Istanbul
Mehmet was well
known for his
cruelty…some
estimates reach
30,000 deaths
per year that
he was
responsible for!!!
C. Continued Ottoman Spread
1. The Ottomans took control of Mesopotamia, Egypt, and the
Arabian Peninsula with holy cities of Mecca and
Medina
2. Ottoman rule spread across North Africa though by 1600’s
this
area was semi-independent
3. Ottoman attempts to penetrate Eastern Europe were
stymied by
the Hungarians
4. Greatest threat to Europe came under rule of greatest of Ottoman
rulers, Suleyman I. Under his leadership, Ottomans seized
Belgrade and won victory over Hungarians and occupied the
country
Suleyman I
(Suleiman the Magnificent)
D. Ottoman Rule
1. The Ottomans copied many aspects of Byzantine political
structure, especially imperial rule
2. A strong centralized government was established with the
sultan
at its head in Istanbul…no clear succession rules.
a. The position of sultan was hereditary…once in power,
a
sultan would murder all his brothers.
b. The private domain of the sultan was called the harem
3. The imperial bureaucracy was controlled by the sultan
through
his chief minister, the Grand Vizier
a. Most high government officials were Muslim by birth
and
many were chosen based on merit
b. The Ottomans administered their lands through local
rulers
called pashas
--Pashas collected taxes (giving a percentage to the
Ottomans) and maintained law and order
4. As Caliph, the sultan was the supreme religious leader but he
delegated many duties to the Ulema, who administered the
legal system and education
5. Islamic law applied to all Ottoman territory
6. The Ottomans were tolerant of non-Muslims…head tax
a. Non-Muslim religions were headed by an official who was
responsible to the sultan
7. Women had greater freedom under the Ottomans than in other
Muslim nations
a. Could own and inherit
property, could not be
forced into marriage, and
were permitted to divorce
Women in the Ottoman court
E. Ottoman Decline
1. The Ottomans laid siege
to Vienna in 1529
2. Ottoman advance into
Mediterranean
stopped at Lepanto in
1571 by Western
coalition led by the Spanish…ended Turkish control
of the
eastern Mediterranean
3. In 1600’s, the Ottomans attempted to expand
into
Europe again
a. Vienna was besieged again
b. Combined European force pushed
Ottomans
out of Austria and
Hungary
c. Ottomans would never threaten Central
Europe again
Siege of Vienna
Outside
challenges
increase!!
I put this box
in to balance
the slide
Inflation from
new world
bullion!!!
Local officials
grew
stronger!!
Ottoman
Decline???
Even with
all of these issues, the
Ottoman Dynasty still
lasted until after
World War I!
Portugal
makes it to
Africa!!!
Ability of
Sultans
declined!!
No
innovations
like western
Europe!!!
V. Reflections: The Centrality of Context
in World History
A. Contextual thinking
B. Not all empires are equal