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Origins of the Modern International System World Politics and Economics: 1648-1945 (Part I) Politics before Nations Before the 17th century, political entities were defined by: Ruling elites Religion. Political units were: City-states, Feudal lordships, Dynastic kingdoms, Religious empires Muslim Caliphate Holy Roman Empire. Leaders usually based their authority on tradition, force, or religious sanction Niccolo Machiavelli – The Prince. The concept of state sovereignty was not yet established, rulers had to: Constantly defend their authority from dynastic rivals and Domestic and foreign challengers. Trade was important, but risky; Commerce was often subject to: Piracy, Blockade, Tariffs and taxation. In the absence of enforceable international law or treaties: Trade and relations among rulers were generally unpredictable and fragmented. Thirty Years' War After the Reformation challenged papal authority over Western Christianity, Many European rulers broke away from the political and religious authority of the Holy Roman Empire. Henry VIII Peace of Westphalia The Thirty Years' War ended with the Peace of Westphalia (1648), It established the principles of: Sovereignty and Collective security. Sovereignty Sovereignty – political independence and ultimate legal authority over internal affairs; Westphalia recognized that this rested with secular rulers rather than with the Pope, the Church, or the Holy Roman Empire. Collective Security Collective security – the principle that states should unite in opposition to blatant aggression by one state against another. These principles remain key features of the contemporary international system. ex. Collective security & sovereignty were used to justify the U.S.-led coalition's military operations against Iraq in the Persian Gulf War in 1990-91. While the UN authorized the use of force to oppose Iraq's aggression against Kuwait, it refused to violate Iraq's sovereignty by sanctioning intervention into Iraq's domestic affairs. The contradictions between sovereignty and collective security became immediately apparent, however. In an anarchic system of sovereign states, conflicts of interest and shifts of alliances are practically inevitable. Objective determination of aggression and achievement of consensus to enforce collective security are inherently difficult in such a system. Portugal and Holland could not defend their colonial outposts; By 1700, Britain and France emerged as the leading colonial powers. Britain possessed domestic and geographic advantages over France in their colonial competition, This became a driving force in world politics in the 18th century. The Great Powers The requirements for Great Power status have always been imprecisely defined, In general great powers are: Economically and militarily strong states that do not depend on other states for their security; Great Powers are the major “players” in the “game” of international politics, Have a relatively large territory and population, A well-organized military, And a strong economy. The ranks of the European Great Powers changed over time Throughout the 18th century France, England, Austria, Russia, Prussia, and the Ottoman Empire were recognized as Great Powers. The interests of the Great Powers frequently conflicted, But most sought to prevent any single power from dominating the European system. Therefore, the Great Powers entered into many shifting alliances to preserve the balance of power – to prevent one state from becoming dominant. “World Wars” of the 18th Century While most wars of this period were limited in scope , three major conflicts in the 18th century included: Significant fighting within Europe and Combat in the European powers’ colonial empires in: Asia, Africa, North America South America. War of the Spanish Succession (1702-1713) The “Grand Alliance” of Austria, England, and the Netherlands prevented an attempt by France's King Louis XIV to establish French domination over Spain. War of the Austrian Succession (1740-1748) Saw France and Spain support a successful attempt by King Frederick II (“the Great”) of Prussia to take Silesia from Austria. Seven Years' War (1756-1763) Austria, France, and Russia opposed England and Prussia. Though surrounded by enemies in continental Europe, superior military organization and Frederick the Great's leadership allowed Prussia to fight its adversaries to a standstill. Meanwhile, England and France fought for each other's colonies in: North America, West Indies, India. England gained vast territories in North America (including Canada) and established its domination of India as a result of the war, However, England and France ran up huge war debts in the process. Aftermath of War and Prelude to Revolution Both England and France had to: Raise taxes dramatically and Look for new revenues to finance the massive debts accumulated during the Seven Years' War. Attempts to raise extra revenues prompted Britain's American colonies to revolt over “taxation without representation”; France, however, continued to face a political and financial crisis as a result of its war debts. The French Revolution (17891793) It toppled the French monarchy and struck terror in the crowned heads of Europe. The revolution, inspired in large part by the philosophies of the Enlightenment, promoted two ideologies: Nationalism Liberalism Nationalism Nationalism held that each nation should have its own independent state; It focused popular loyalty on the nation rather than the monarch. Liberalism Liberalism argued that: The power of government should be vested in citizens, not monarchs, Government should allow individuals more freedom and responsibility over their own thoughts and actions. The French Revolution created a new security dilemma in Europe: The success of the Revolution, with its slogan of liberty, egalite, fraternite and the ideologies it promoted threatened European monarchs; France feared that the monarchs would attempt counterrevolutionary intervention. To defend France and spread the revolution, the radical French regime raised an army of conscripts owing loyalty to the nation rather to a king. Revolutionary turmoil in France allowed Napoleon Bonaparte to seize power in 1799 and have himself crowned Emperor of the French in 1804. The Napoleonic Era Under Napoleon's rule, France attained temporary domination of Europe with a series of stunning military victories, establishing liberal institutions in the countries it controlled. By 1810, France controlled Spain, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Poland, and most of Germany and Italy And was allied with Austria, Prussia, and Denmark. But was opposed by Britain, which established control of the seas after the naval battle of Trafalgar (1805). The Napoleonic social and political institutions established in French satellites greatly: Increased the efficiency of government and Government's responsiveness to broader segments of society. Napoleonic warfare, fought to establish nations and topple monarchies, was far more costly and destructive than the limited warfare of the 18th century; Millions of soldiers were mobilized, Decisive battles of 500,000 or more troops caused casualties and devastation on a scale unseen since the Thirty Years' War. Napoleon's Downfall Three factors led to the breakdown of the French Empire and Napoleon's eventual defeat: The Continental System The Peninsular War Napoleon's ill-advised invasion of Russia The Continental System Napoleon's embargo on trade with Britain alienated many French controlled and allied states that profited from trade with England and its colonies. Invasion of Russia (1812) (1812) overextended French forces in a disastrous campaign. Waterloo Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia united to defeat France and force Napoleon to abdicate in 1814; Napoleon returned from exile to lead France once again in 1815, But was defeated by British, Prussian, and Dutch forces at the Battle of Waterloo. Napoleon's Legacy Napoleon influenced legal and governing systems all over the world. During the Napoleonic Era much of Latin America achieved independence. The Concert of Europe The Congress of Vienna After Napoleon's defeat in 1814, representatives of the Great Powers gathered in Vienna to restore Europe to “normalcy” (To reestablish the monarchical system existing before the French Revolution). Normalcy The Congress adopted the following provisions in an attempt to preserve peace and the balance of power in Europe: The French monarchy was restored Neutral buffer states were established to contain future French expansion. Switzerland Territorial changes were made throughout Europe, France was forced to pay indemnities to the victors. Mostly in favor of Prussia and Russia. The Concert of Europe was established to promote cooperation between the Great Powers against future threats. The Concert of Europe France, Britain, Austria, Russia, and Prussia agreed to: Meet periodically to review European affairs Hold special consultations to manage crises. The Concert was based on the principle of collective security The Great Powers were formally committed to unite against aggression. The main goals of the congress were to: Maintain the political status quo against the threat of revolution and nationalism Preserve the strategic balance of power in Europe. From the outset, however, the Congress was shackled with inherent weaknesses Weaknesses Realpolitik conflicts among the Great Powers continued, It undermined the principle of collective security. Britain, with its strong democratic institutions and emerging liberal views on trade and human rights, disagreed with the goal of the conservative powers to suppress liberalism and nationalism. The Concert had no effective means of enforcing cooperation among the Great Powers. The Industrial Revolution The Industrial Revolution, which first began in Britain the late 18th century, Changed the organization of industrial production Harnessed new sources of energy, especially steam power. Social, Economic and Strategic Impact The social, economic, and strategic impact of the Industrial Revolution was tremendous: Factories produced more new products faster than ever before, Manufacturing, transportation, and communication became mechanized. International trade and investment skyrocketed, Competition among industrialized states for markets and raw materials grew. Spread of Industrialization The spread of industrialization gradually but profoundly changed the European system. Britain industrialized first, Followed later by Germany and France, Still later by Austria, Much later by Russia; Britain’s early lead gave it significant advantages, until it was eclipsed by Germany. Unification of Italy and Germany Italian Unification Italian nationalism was led by the Count di Cavour of Piedmont-Sardinia and Giuseppe Garibaldi. Piedmont, Sicily, and Naples united with other Italian states to form the Kingdom of Italy in 1871. German Unification German unification was masterminded by Otto von Bismarck, the “Iron Chancellor” of Prussia. Bismarck's foreign policy was determined almost exclusively by realpolitik. An aristocratic landowner, he had little interest in liberal ideas initially, but realized that nationalism could be used as a means to: Increase Prussia's power, Enlist the aid of the middle classes, Address the concerns of the masses. Using superior military organization, rapid mobilization, and modern technology, In January 1871, the formation of a German Empire was declared; The empire included two provinces seized from France, Alsace and Lorraine, even though the population of Lorraine was largely French. German unification radically altered the European system and balance of power. Germany became the strongest power in continental Europe. The proclamation of the German Empire in Versailles humiliated France and resulted in the rise of French desire to avenge a defeat. The rapid success of Prussian armies against Austria and France led European military planners to believe that future wars would be decided quickly. Imperialism in the Industrial Era The demand for raw materials from the Industrial Revolution made imperialism even more beneficial for industrializing nations. Industrialization and technological advances gave Europe advantages over traditional African and Asian states. Britain's naval and economic power allowed it to impose a pax Britannica (“British peace”), discouraging major war by threatening aggressors with embargoes and other economic sanctions. By 1897, the “sun never set” on the British empire Britain's primacy in the colonial world was indisputable, But its ability to maintain this vast empire was open to question. Imperial Rivals Sought Power Following the Napoleonic Wars, France built an extensive empire, Especially in Africa and Indochina; The French saw their goal as bringing culture and civilization to backward peoples, attempting to assimilate and colonize them to the French way of life. Bismarckian System In the last decade of the 19th century, Bismarck used a series of defensive alliances known as the Bismarckian system to: Protect German security, Forestall war between the Great Powers. The objectives of the system were to: Keep Germany, Austria-Hungary and Russia together, while keeping France isolated. Italy was brought into the system in 1882 with the Triple Alliance among Germany, Austria-Hungary, and Italy. Bismarck's system helped moderate conflicts between the Great Powers, but by 1888 the system was on the verge of breaking down. Russia was becoming increasingly distrustful of Germany. Britain and France had settled most of their differences. Conflict between Russia and AustriaHungary increased German expansionists pressed for the acquisition of overseas colonies and political equality with Britain and France. German domestic politics resulted in Bismarck's dismissal in 1890; by this time, most of Europe had enjoyed nearly two decades of peace, but the seeds of a great-power war had been sown. International System on the Eve of the 20th Century By 1890, the stability Europe had enjoyed under the Concert of Europe was rapidly collapsing. The Concert's and Bismarck's systems of alliances had been able to resolve the conflicts between the Great Powers that arose from the security dilemma But were incapable of dealing with conflicts between nations. In general, the Concert and other European institutions were able to cope well with the economic globalization caused by the Industrial Revolution, But could not handle the increasing political fragmentation brought about by social changes and nationalism. The extent of European power and influence throughout the world by the end of the century meant that in all likelihood any major conflict between the Great Powers would become a global war.