Download Chapter 18 Scientific progress convinced Europeans of the power of

Chapter 18
Scientific progress convinced Europeans of the power of human reason.
If people used reason to find laws that governed the physical world, why not use reason to discover natural
laws, or laws that governed human nature?
Thus, the Scientific Revolution led to another revolution in thinking, which came to be known as the
Enlightenment.
Through the use of reason, people and governments could solve social, political, and economic problems.
Thomas Hobbes
John Locke
Baron de Montesquieu
People are naturally cruel,
People are basically
The separation of powers is the
greedy, and selfish.
reasonable and moral.
best way to protect liberty.
People entered into a social
People have certain natural
Each branch of government should
contract, in order to live in an rights.
serve as a check on the others.
organized society.
A government has a duty to
Only an absolute monarchy
the people it governs. If a
can ensure an orderly society. government fails, the people
have the right to overthrow it.
Thinkers called philosophes believed that the use of reason could lead to reforms of government, law, and
society.
Voltaire
Rousseau
Mary Wollstonecraft
Defended the principle of
Believed that people were
Argued that a woman should
freedom of speech.
basically good.
be able to decide what is in
Used wit to expose abuses
Argued that government
her own interest and should
and corruption.
controls should be minimal
not be completely dependent
Opposed the slave trade and
and should only be
on her husband.
religious prejudice.
imposed by a freely elected
Called for equal education for
government.
girls and boys.
Felt the good of the
community should be placed
above individual interests.
Thinkers called physiocrats focused on economic reforms. Like the philosophes, physiocrats looked for
natural laws to define a rational economic system.
Physiocrats rejected mercantilism in favor of a policy called laissez faire.
Laissez faire means allowing businesses to run with little or no government interference.
In The Wealth of Nations, Adam Smith argued that the free market should be allowed to regulate business
activity. Smith supported laissez faire, but also believed that a government had a duty to protect society,
administer justice, and provide public works.
Enlightened despots were absolute rulers who used their power to bring about political and social change.
Frederick the Great
Catherine the Great
Joseph II
Exerted tight control over
Was interested in
Most radical of enlightened
subjects, but saw himself as
Enlightenment ideas but
despots.
a “servant of the state.”
intended to give up no power. Granted toleration to
Tolerated religious
Protestants and Jews.
differences.
Made some limited reforms in Ended censorship and tried to
Distributed seeds and tools to law and government.
control the Catholic Church.
peasants.
Granted nobles a charter of
Sold church property to build
rights.
hospitals.
Criticized the institution of
Abolished serfdom.
serfdom.
In the 1600s and 1700s, the arts evolved to meet changing tastes.
Literature
Courtly Art
Music
Literature developed new
forms and a wide new
audience.
Middle class readers enjoyed
stories about their own times.
Great numbers of novels were
written.
Artists and designers
developed the rococo style,
which was personal, elegant,
and charming.
New kinds of musical
entertainment evolved, such
as ballets and operas.
Music followed ordered,
structured forms.
Johann Sebastian
Bach,George Frederick
Handel, and Wolfgang
Amadeus Mozart were brilliant
and influential composers of
this time.
Peasant life varied across Europe. Peasant culture, based on centuries-old traditions, changed slowly.
In Western Europe, serfdom had largely disappeared.
Peasants worked their own plots of land, were tenants of large landowners, or worked as day laborers.
In central and Eastern Europe, serfdom remained firmly rooted.
Peasants owed labor services to their lords and could be bought and sold with the land.
Britain Rose to Global Power
Location placed England in a position to control trade during the Renaissance.
In the 1700s, Britain was usually on the winning side in European conflicts.
England had developed a powerful navy, which could protect its growing empire and trade.
England offered a more favorable climate to business and commerce than did its European rivals.
The union of England and Scotland brought economic advantages to both lands.
In the century following the Glorious Revolution, three new political institutions arose in Britain:
1. Political parties emerged in England in the late 1600s. The first political parties, the Tories and the
Whigs, represented small exclusive groups of wealthy men.
2. The cabinet system was a group of advisers to the prime minister. They were called the cabinet
because they met in a small room.
3. The Prime Minister was the leader of the majority party in Parliament and in time the chief official of the
British government.
The appearance of these institutions was part of the evolution of Britain’s constitutional government, that
is a government whose power is defined and limited by law.
Chapter 19
The Old Regime
Third Estate
The BOURGEOISIE and PEASANTS
Peasants were 90 percent of French population
Resented privilege of first and second estates
Burdened by taxes
Many earned miserable wages and faced hunger and even starvation
Second Estate
The NOBILITY
Owned land but had little money income
Hated absolutism
Feared losing traditional privilege, especially exemption from taxes
First Estate
The CLERGY
Enjoyed enormous wealth and privilege
Owned about 10 percent of land, collected tithes, and paid no taxes
Provided some social services
Under the ancien regime, or old order, everyone in France belonged to one of three classes.
Economic Trouble
●
Economic woes added to the social unrest and heightened tension
●
For years, the French government had engaged in deficit spending that is, a government’s
spending more money than it takes in.
●
Louis XIV had left France deeply in debt. Recent wars, a general rise in costs in the 1700s, and
the lavish court were incredibly costly. To bridge the gap between income and expenses, the
government borrowed more and more money.
●
Bad harvests in the late 1780s sent food prices soaring and brought hunger to poorer peasants and
city dwellers.
Meeting of the Estates General
France’s economic crisis worsened, bread riots spread, and nobles denounced royal tyranny.
Louis XVI summoned the Estates General.
The Third Estate declared themselves to be the National Assembly and invited delegates from the other two
estates to help them write a constitution.
When reform-minded clergy and nobles joined the Assembly, Louis grudgingly accepted it.
Storming of the Bastille
On July 14, 1789, more than 800 Parisians gathered outside the Bastille, a medieval fortress used as a
prison. They demanded weapons believed to be stored there.
The commander of the Bastille opened fire on the crowd, and a battle ensued, in which many people were
killed.
The storming of the Bastille quickly became a symbol of the French Revolution, a blow to tyranny. Today,
the French still celebrate July 14 as Bastille Day.
Popular Revolts
● In such desperate times, rumors ran wild and set off what was later called the “Great Fear.”
●
A radical group called the Paris Commune replaced the royalist government of Paris. Various
factions, or small groups, competed for power.
●
In the countryside, peasants attacked the homes and manors of nobles.
The political crisis of 1789 coincided with the worst famine in memory. Starving peasants roamed the
countryside or flocked to the towns. Even people with jobs had to spend most of their income on bread.
Foreign Reaction
Events in France stirred debate all over Europe.
● Supporters of the Enlightenment applauded the reforms of the National Assembly. They saw the
French experiment as the dawn of a new age for justice and equality.
● European rulers and nobles denounced the French Revolution.
● In 1791, the monarchs of Austria and Prussia issued the Declaration of Pilnitz, in which they
threatened to intervene to protect the French monarchy.
● Revolutionaries in France took the threat seriously and prepared for war.
Radicals and the Convention
Radicals took control of the Assembly and called for the election of a new legislative body called the
National Convention. They granted suffrage, or the right to vote, to all male citizens, not just to property
owners.
The convention set out to erase all traces of the old order. It voted to abolish the monarchy and declare
France a republic. The Jacobins, who controlled the Convention, seized lands of nobles and abolished titles
of nobility.
From Convention to Directory
By early 1793, France was at war with most of Europe. Within France, peasants and workers were in
rebellion against the government. The Convention itself was bitterly divided.
To deal with threats to France, the Convention created the Committee of Public Safety.
The Reign of Terror lasted from about July 1793 to July 1794. Under the guidance of Maximilien
Robespierre, some 40,000 people were executed at the guillotine.
In reaction to the Reign of Terror, moderates created another constitution, the third since 1789. The
Constitution of 1795 set up a five-man Directory and a two-house legislature.
Women in the Revolution
Women of all classes participated in the revolution from the very beginning.
Many women were very disappointed when the Declaration of the Rights of Man did not grant equal
citizenship to women.
Women did gain some rights for a time. However, these did not last long after Napoleon gained power.
Changes in Daily Life
By 1799, the French Revolution had dramatically changed France. It had dislodged the old social order,
overthrown the monarchy, and brought the Church under state control. Many changes occurred in everyday
life:
●
New symbols, such as the tricolor, emerged.
●
Titles were eliminated.
●
Elaborate fashions were replaced by practical clothes.
●
People developed a strong sense of national identity.
●
Nationalism, a strong feeling of pride and devotion to one’s country, spread throughout France.
The Rise of Napoleon
1769 Born on island of Corsica
1793 Helps capture Toulon from British; promoted to brigadier general
1795 Crushes rebels opposed to the National Convention
1796–1797 Becomes commander in chief of the army of Italy; wins victories against Austria
1798–1799 Loses to the British in Egypt and Syria
1799 Overthrows Directory and becomes First Consul of France
1804 Crowns himself emperor of France
France Under Napoleon
Napoleon consolidated his power by strengthening the central government. Order, security, and efficiency
replaced liberty, equality, and fraternity as the slogans of the new regime.
Napoleon instituted a number of reforms to restore economic prosperity.
Napoleon developed a new law code, the Napoleonic Code, which embodied Enlightenment principles.
Napoleon undid some of the reforms of the French Revolution:
●
Women lost most of their newly gained rights.
●
Male heads of household regained complete authority over their wives and children.
Building an Empire
As Napoleon created a vast French empire, he redrew the map of Europe.
● He annexed, or added outright, some areas to France.
● He abolished the Holy Roman Empire.
● He cut Prussia in half.
Napoleon controlled much of Europe through forceful diplomacy.
● He put friends and relatives on the thrones of Europe.
● He forced alliances on many European powers.
Britain alone remained outside Napoleon’s empire.
Napoleon’s Power
Causes and Effects of the French Revolution
Long-Term Causes
Corrupt, inconsistent, and insensitive leadership
Prosperous members of Third Estate resent privileges of First and Second estates
Spread of Enlightenment ideas
Immediate Causes
Huge government debt
Poor harvests and rising price of bread
Failure of Louis XVI to accept financial reforms
Formation of National Assembly
Storming of Bastille
Immediate Effects
Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen adopted
France adopts its first written constitution
Monarchy abolished
Revolutionary France fights coalition of European powers
Reign of Terror
Long-Term Effects
Napoleon gains power
Napoleonic Code established
French public schools set up
French conquests spread nationalism
Revolutions occur in Europe and Latin America
Challenges to Napoleon’s Empire
The impact of nationalism
Many Europeans who had welcomed the ideas of the French Revolution nevertheless saw Napoleon and
his armies as foreign oppressors.
Resistance in Spain
Napoleon had replaced the king of Spain with his own brother, but many Spaniards remained loyal to their
former king. Spanish patriots conducted a campaign of guerrilla warfare against the French.
War with Austria
Spanish resistance encouraged Austria to resume hostilities against the French.
Defeat in Russia
Nearly all of Napoleon’s 400,000 troops sent on a campaign in Russia died, most from hunger and the cold
of the Russian winter.
Downfall of Napoleon
1812—Napoleon’s forces were defeated in Russia.
Russia, Britain, Austria, and Prussia form a new alliance against a weakened France.
1813—Napoleon was defeated in the Battle of Nations in Leipzig.
1814—Napoleon abdicated, or stepped down from power, and was exiled to Elba, an island in the
Mediterranean Sea.
1815—Napoleon escaped his exile and returned to France.
Combined British and Prussian forces defeated Napoleon at Waterloo.
Napoleon was forced to abdicate again, and was this time exiled to St. Helena, an island in the South
Atlantic.
1821—Napoleon died in exile.
Legacy of Napoleon
The Napoleonic Code consolidated many changes of the revolution.
Napoleon turned France into a centralized state with a constitution.
Elections were held with expanded, though limited, suffrage.
Many more citizens had rights to property and access to education.
French citizens lost many rights promised to them during the Convention.
On the world stage, Napoleon’s conquests spread the ideas of the revolution and nationalism.
Napoleon failed to make Europe into a French empire.
The abolition of the Holy Roman Empire would eventually contribute to the creation of a new Germany.
Napoleon’s decision to sell France’s Louisiana Territory to America doubled the size of the United States
and ushered in an age of American expansion.
The chief goal of the Congress was to create a lasting peace by establishing a balance of power and
protecting the system of monarchy.
To achieve this goal, the peacemakers did the following:
●
They redrew the map of Europe. To contain French ambition, they ringed France with strong
countries.
●
They promoted the principle of legitimacy, restoring hereditary monarchies that the French
Revolution or Napoleon had unseated.
●
To protect the new order, Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Great Britain extended their wartime
alliance into the postwar era.
Chapter 20
The Industrial Revolution was a long, slow, uneven process in which production shifted from simple hand
tools to complex machines.
●
The rural way of life began to disappear.
●
Travelers moved rapidly between countries and continents.
●
Country villages grew into towns and cities.
●
People bought goods in stores and lived in crowded apartment buildings.
The Industrial Revolution was made possible by:
●
a second agricultural revolution.
●
a population explosion.
●
the development of new technology.
Dutch farmers led the way. They:
●
built dikes to reclaim land from the sea.
●
combined smaller fields into larger ones.
●
used fertilizer from livestock to renew the soil.
In the 1700s, British farmers expanded on Dutch experiments. They:
●
mixed different kinds of soils to get higher crop yields.
●
tried new methods of crop rotation.
●
grew turnips, which restored exhausted soil.
●
invented the seed drill.
Meanwhile, rich landowners pushed ahead with enclosure, the process of taking over and fencing off land
formerly shared by peasant farmers. As millions of acres were enclosed, farm output rose.
The agricultural revolution contributed to a rapid growth of population that continues today.
The population boom of the 1700s was due more to declining death rates than to rising birthrates.
●
The agricultural revolution reduced the risk of famine.
●
Because they ate better, women were healthier and had stronger babies.
●
In the 1800s, better hygiene and sanitation, along with improved medical care, further limited
deaths from disease.
New sources of energy, along with new materials, enabled business owners to change the way work was
done.
AN ENERGY REVOLUTION — During the 1700s, people began to harness new sources of energy.
●
Thomas Newcomen developed a steam engine powered by coal.
●
James Watt improved on the steam engine.
IMPROVED IRON — Coal was used to produce iron, a material needed for construction of machines and
steam engines.
●
The Darby family of England developed methods to produce better quality, less expensive iron.
Section 2
● Britain had large supplies of coal and iron, as well as a large labor supply.
● Britain had plenty of skilled mechanics who were eager to meet the growing demand for new,
practical inventions.
● A prosperous British economy meant that the business class had capital, or wealth, to invest, and
consumer goods were affordable to all.
● Britain had a stable government that supported economic growth.
● Many British entrepreneurs came from religious groups that encouraged thrift and hard work.
● In the 1600s, cotton cloth imported from India had become popular. British merchants tried to
organize a cotton cloth industry at home. To do so, they developed the putting out system.
As the demand for cloth grew, inventors came up with a series of remarkable inventions that revolutionized
the British textile industry.
The flying shuttle
The spinning jenny
The waterframe used The new machines were too large
allowed weaves to
spun many threads
water power to speed and expensive to be operated at
work much faster.
at the same time.
up spinning still
home. Thus, the putting out system
further.
was replaced by the first factories,
places that brought together
workers and machines to produce
large quantities of goods.
● The Industrial Revolution brought rapid urbanization, or the movement of people to cities.
● The wealthy and middle class lived in pleasant neighborhoods.
● Many poor people lived in slums. They packed into tiny rooms in tenements, multistory buildings
divided into crowded apartments. In the slums, there was no sewage or sanitation system, and
waste and garbage rotted in the streets. Cholera and other diseases spread rapidly.
The heart of the new industrial city was the factory. There, the technology of the machine age imposed a
harsh new way of life on workers.
● Working hours were long, sometimes 12 to 16 hours a day.
● Workers suffered injuries from unsafe machines.
● Workers were exposed to other dangers, such as breathing coal dust in the mines or lint in the textile
factories.
● If a worker was sick or injured, they would lose their job.
● Factory jobs took women out of their homes for 12 hours or more a day.
● Factories and mines employed children as young as five years old.
● Employers often hired orphans.
Working Class
MIDDLE CLASS
● Working hours were long, sometimes
● Entrepreneurs benefited most from the
12 to 16 hours a day.
Industrial Revolution.
● Workers suffered injuries from unsafe
● Families lived in nice homes and ate
machines.
and dressed well.
● Workers were exposed to other
● Women were encouraged to
dangers, such as breathing coal dust in
become “ladies.”
● People valued hard work and the
the mines or lint in the textile factories.
● If a worker was sick or injured, they
determination to “get ahead.”
● Many believed the poor were
would lose their job.
● Factory jobs took women out of their
responsible for their own misery.
homes for 12 hours or more a day.
● Factories and mines employed children
as young as five years old.
● Employers often hired orphans.
The Industrial Revolution created social problems:
● Low pay
● Unemployment
● Dismal living conditions
The Industrial Revolution brought material benefits:
● The increasing demand for mass-produced goods led to the creation of more jobs.
● Wages rose.
● The cost of railroad travel fell.
● Horizons widened and opportunities increased.
● The physiocrats of the Enlightenment argued that government should not interfere in the free
operation of the economy. In the early 1800s, middle-class business leaders embraced this laissez
faire, or “hands-off” approach.
Adam Smith
Thomas Malthus
Savid Ricardo
A free market would produce
more goods at lower prices,
making them affordable to
everyone.
A growing economy would
encourage capitalists to
reinvest profits in new
ventures.
Population would outpace the
food supply.
As long as the population kept
increasing, the poor would
suffer.
People should have fewer
children.
The “iron law of wages” said
that when wages were high,
families had more children.
More children meant a greater
labor supply, which led to
lower wages and higher
unemployment.
UTILITARIANISM
SOCIALISM
The idea that the goal of society should
The people as a whole, rather than private
be “the greatest happiness for the greatest
individuals, own and operate the means of
number” of its citizens.
production.
Jeremy Bentham supported individual
The Utopians wanted to build self-sufficient
freedom, but saw the need for government
communities in which all work was shared and
involvement under certain circumstances.
all property owned in common.
John Stuart Mill wanted the government to
Robert Owen set up a model community in
step in to improve the hard lives of the working Scotland and put Utopian ideas into practice.
class.
Karl Marx outlined a new economic theory:
● The entire course of history was a class struggle between the “haves” and the “have-nots.”
● The modern class struggle pitted the bourgeoisie against the proletariat, or working class.
● In the end, the proletariat would take control of the means of production and set up a classless,
communist society. In such a society, wealth and power would be equally shared.
● Despite a number of weaknesses, Marx’s theory had a wide influence on industrial Europe.
Chapter 21
Opposing Ideologies
At the Congress of Vienna, the powers of Europe tried to turn the clock back to the way things had been
before 1789.
Other voices, however, kept challenging the order imposed by the Congress of Vienna.
The clash of people with opposing ideologies, or systems of thought and belief, plunged Europe into more
than 30 years of turmoil.
Goals of Conservatives
Challenging the conservatives at every turn were liberals and nationalists who were inspired by the
Enlightenment and the French Revolution.
Conservatives pursued the following goals:
● Restore royal families to the thrones they had lost when Napoleon swept across Europe.
● Maintain a social hierarchy in which lower classes respected and obeyed their social superiors.
● Maintain an established church.
● Suppress revolutionary ideas.
Liberalism
Liberals wanted:
● Governments based on written constitutions and separation of powers.
● Natural rights of liberty, equality, and prosperity.
● Rulers elected by the people and responsible to them.
● A republican form of government.
● Laissez-faire economics.
Nationalism
●
National groups who shared a common heritage set out to win their own states.
● Nationalism gave people with a common heritage a sense of identity.
● Nationalism often bred intolerance and led to persecution of other ethnic or national groups.
Revolts Against the Old Order
● In the the Balkans, first Serbia, and later Greece fought for and won independence from their
●
Ottoman rulers.
In Spain, Portugal, and various states in the Italian peninsula, rebels struggled to gain constitutional
governments. In response, a French army marched over the Pyrenees to suppress the revolts in
Spain. Austrian forces crossed the Alps to smash rebellious outbreaks in Italy.
Spurred by the ideas of liberalism and nationalism, revolutionaries fought against the old order.
Why Did Revolutions Occur in France in 1830 and 1848?
Charles X, a strong believer in absolutism, suspended the legislature, limited the right to vote, and restricted
the press.
When the government tried to silence critics and prevent public meetings, angry crowds took to the streets.
Moderate liberals put in place a constitutional monarchy, and chose Louis Philippe as king.
Liberals and radicals rebelled and took control of Paris.
Revolutionary leaders proclaimed a Second Republic.
Louis Philippe abdicated.
How Did Revolution Spread in 1830?
The revolts in Paris inspired uprisings elsewhere in Europe. Most were suppressed by military force.
But here and there, rebels did win changes from conservative governments. Even when they failed,
revolutionaries frightened rulers badly enough to encourage reform later in the century.
Belgium The one notable success for Europe’s revolutionaries in 1830 took place in Belgium. The
Congress of Vienna had united Belgium and Holland under the Dutch king. The Belgians resented this
arrangement and pushed for independence. In 1831, Belgium became an independent state with a liberal
constitution.
Poland Nationalists in Poland staged an uprising in 1830. However, the rebels failed to gain widespread
support, and were brutally crushed by Russian forces.
Revolutions of 1848
● In Austria, revolts caused Metternich to resign. The Austrian government agreed to reforms, but
these gains were temporary. With Russian help, Austrian forces defeated the rebels. Many were
imprisoned, executed, or exiled.
● Nationalists in Italy rebelled against Austrian Hapsburg rulers. They expelled the pope and installed
a nationalist government. Before long, Austrian troops ousted the new government and the French
army restored the pope to power.
● In Prussia, liberals forced King Frederick William IV to agree to a constitution written by an elected
assembly. Within a year, Frederick dissolved the assembly and issued his own constitution keeping
power in his own hands.
In 1848, revolts in Paris again unleashed a tidal wave of revolution across Europe.
Why Did the Uprisings Fail?
● Rulers used military force to suppress the uprisings.
● Revolutionaries did not have mass support.
● A growing gulf divided workers seeking radical economic change and liberals pursuing moderate
political reforms.
By 1850 the rebellions had faded, ending the age of liberal revolution that had begun in 1789.
What Caused Discontent in Latin America?
By the late 1700s, the revolutionary fever that gripped Western Europe had spread to Latin America. There,
discontent was rooted in the social, racial, and political system that had emerged during 300 years of
Spanish rule.
●
Creoles resented their second-class status.
●
Mestizos and mulattoes were angry at being denied the status, wealth, and power available to
whites.
●
Native Americans suffered economic misery under the Spanish.
●
Enslaved Africans who worked on plantations longed for freedom.
Struggles for Independence
Central America
● Spanish-ruled lands declared their independence in the early 1820s.
Local leaders set up the United Provinces of Central America.
The union soon fragmented into separate republics of Guatemala, Nicaragua, Honduras, El
Salvador, and Costa Rica.
Mexico
● Father Miguel Hidalgo and José Morales led popular revolts.
● Rebels led by Agustín de Iturbide overthrew the Spanish viceroy, creating an independent Mexico.
● Iturbide took the title of emperor, but was quickly overthrown.
● Liberal Mexicans set up the Republic of Mexico.
Haiti
● In 1791, Toussaint L’Ouverture led slaves in revolt.
● By 1798, enslaved Haitians had been freed.
● In 1802, Napoleon sent an army to recapture Haiti.
● Napoleon’s forces agreed to a truce, or temporary peace.
● In 1804, Haitian leaders declared independence.
Independence in South America
Simon Bolívar, called “The Liberator,” led an uprising that established a republic in Venezuela. He then
captured Bogotá, Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia.
●
In 1816, José de San Martín helped Argentina win freedom from Spain. He then joined forces with
Bolívar.
●
Bolívar tried to unite the liberated lands into a single nation called Gran Columbia. However, bitter
rivalries made that dream impossible. Before long, Gran Columbia split into three independent
countries: Venezuela, Columbia, and Ecuador.
In South America, Native Americans had rebelled against Spanish rule as early as the 1700s, with limited
results. It was not until the 1800s that discontent sparked a widespread drive for independence.
Independent Nations of Latin America About 1844
Independence Movements in Latin America
Long- Term Causes
European domination of Latin America
Spread of Enlightenment ideas
American and French revolutions
Growth of nationalism in Latin America
Immediate Causes
People of Latin America resent colonial rule and social injustices
Revolutionary leaders emerge
Napoleon invades Spain and ousts Spanish king
Immediate Effects
Toussaint L‘Ouverture leads slave revolt in Haiti
Bolívar, San Martín, and others lead successful revolts in Latin America
Colonial rule ends in much of Latin America
Long-Term Effects
Attempts made to rebuild economies
18 separate republics set up
Continuing efforts to achieve stable democratic governments and to gain economic independence
●
●
Chapter 22
New Industrial Powers
● Belgium became the first European nation outside Britain to industrialize.
● Germany united into a powerful nation in 1871. Within a few decades, it became Europe’s leading
industrial power.
● The United States made rapid technological advances, especially after the Civil War. By 1900,
American industry led the world in production.
● Japan industrialized rapidly after 1868.
● Canada, New Zealand, and Australia built thriving industries.
● Eastern and southern Europe industrialized more slowly. These nations lacked natural resources or
the capital to invest.
During the early Industrial Revolution, Britain stood alone as the world’s industrial giant. By the mid-1800s,
other nations had joined the race, and several newcomers were challenging Britain’s industrial supremacy.
Centers of Industry
Technology and Industry
Electricity
Alessandro Volta developed the first battery.
Michael Faraday created the first electric motor and the first dynamo, a machine that generates electricity.
Thomas Edison made the first electric light bulb.
Chemicals
Chemists created hundreds of new products.
New chemical fertilizers led to increased food production.
Alfred Nobel invented dynamite.
Steel
Henry Bessemer developed a process to produce stronger steel.
Steel quickly became the major material used in tools, bridges, and railroads.
The marriage of science, technology, and industry spurred economic growth. To improve efficiency,
manufacturers designed products with interchangeable parts. They also introduced the assembly line.
Advances in Transportation and Communication
TRANSPORTATION
● Steamships replaced sailing ships.
● Rail lines connected inland cities and seaports, mining regions and industrial centers.
● Nikolaus Otto invented a gasoline-powered internal combustion engine.
● Karl Benz patented the first automobile.
● Henry Ford began mass producing cars.
● Orville and Wilbur Wright designed and flew the first airplane.
●
●
●
COMMUNICATION
Samuel Morse developed the telegraph.
Alexander Graham Bell patented the telephone.
Guglielmo Marconi invented the radio.
During the second Industrial Revolution, transportation and communication were transformed by
technology.
The Rise of Big Business
New technologies required the investment of large amounts of money. To obtain capital, entrepreneurs sold
stock, or shares in their companies, to investors.
Large-scale companies formed corporations, businesses that are owned by many investors who buy
shares of stock.
Powerful business leaders created monopolies and trusts, huge corporate structures that controlled entire
industries or areas of the economy.
Sometimes a group of businesses joined forces and formed a cartel, an association to fix prices, set
production quotas, or control markets.
Population Explosion
Between 1800 and 1900, the population of Europe more than doubled. This rapid growth was not due to
larger families. Instead, population soared because the death rate fell.
The drop in the death rate can be attributed to the following:
● People ate better.
● Medical knowledge increased.
● Public sanitation improved.
● Hygiene improved.
Year Male
Female
1850 40.3 years 42.8 years
1870 42.3 years 44.7 years
1890 45.8 years 48.5 years
1910 52.7 years 56.0 years
Advances in Medicine
● JOSEPH LISTER discovered how antiseptic prevented infection.
● FLORENCE NIGHTINGALE insisted on better hygiene in wartime field hospitals, introduced sanitary
measures in British hospitals, and founded the world’s first nursing school.
● ROBERT KOCH identified the bacteria that caused tuberculosis.
● LOUIS PASTEUR proved the link between microbes and disease, developed vaccines against
rabies and anthrax, and discovered the process of pasteurization, the killing of disease-carrying
microbes in milk.
● Improved medicine and hygiene played a major role in increasing life expectancy in the industrialized
world.
City Life
● Settlement patterns shifted: the rich lived in pleasant neighborhoods on the outskirts of the city, while
the poor crowded into slums near the city center.
● Paved streets, gas lamps, organized police forces, and expanded fire protection made cities safer
and more livable.
● Architects began building soaring skyscrapers made of steel.
● Sewage systems improved public health.
As industrialization progressed, cities came to dominate the West. At the same time, city life underwent
dramatic changes.
Working-Class Struggles
Workers protested to improve the harsh conditions of industrial life.
At first, business owners tried to silence protesters, strikes and unions were illegal, and demonstrations
were crushed.
By mid-century, workers slowly began to make progress:
●
Workers formed mutual-aid societies, self-help groups to aid sick or injured workers.
●
Workers won the right to organize unions.
●
Governments passed laws to regulate working conditions.
●
Governments established old-age pensions and disability insurance.
●
The standard of living improved.
The Industrial Revolution: Cause and Effect
Causes
● • Increased agricultural productivity
● • Growing population
● • New sources of energy, such as steam and coal
● • Growing demand for textiles and other mass- produced goods
● • Improved technology
● • Available natural resources, labor, and money
● • Strong, stable governments that promoted economic growth
Immediate Effects
● • Rise of factories
● • Changes in transportation and communication
● • Urbanization
● • New methods of production
● • Rise of urban working class
● • Growth of reform movements
Long-Term Effects
● • Growth of labor unions
● • Inexpensive new products
● • Spread of industrialization
● • Rise of big business
● • Expansion of public education
● • Expansion of middle class
● • Competition for world trade among industrialized nations
● • Progress in medical care
What Values Shaped the New Social Order?
● A strict code of etiquette governed social behavior.
● Children were supposed to be “seen but not heard.”
● Middle-class parents had a large say in choosing whom their children married. At the same time, the
notion of “falling in love” was more accepted than ever before.
● Men worked while women stayed at home. Books, magazines, and popular songs supported a cult
of domesticity that idealized women and the home.
● Across Europe and the United States, politically active women campaigned for fairness in marriage,
divorce, and property laws.
● Women’s groups supported the temperance movement, a campaign to limit or ban the use of
alcoholic beverages.
● Before 1850, some women had become leaders in the union movement.
● Some women campaigned to abolish slavery.
● Many women broke the barriers that kept them out of universities and professions.
● In the mid- to late 1800s, groups dedicated to women’s suffrage emerged.
Growth in Public Education
● By the late 1800s, reformers persuaded many governments to set up public schools and require
basic education for all children.
● Governments began to expand secondary schools, or high schools.
● Colleges and universities expanded during this period. Universities added courses in the sciences to
their curriculums.
● Some women sought greater educational opportunities. By the 1840s, a few small colleges for
women opened.
New Directions in Science
● John Dalton developed modern atomic theory. He showed how different kinds of atoms combine to
make all chemical substances.
● Dmitri Mendeleyev grouped the elements according to their atomic weights.
● Charles Lyell and his successors offered evidence that the Earth had formed over billions of years
and that life had not appeared until long after the Earth was formed. These ideas conflicted with
biblical accounts of creation.
● Charles Darwin put forward the theory of natural selection. Darwin’s theory ignited a furious debate
between scientists and theologians.
In the late 1800s, researchers advanced startling theories about the natural world. These new ideas
challenged long-held beliefs.
Religion in an Urban Age
● Christian churches and Jewish synagogues remained at the center of communities.
● Religious leaders influenced political, social, and educational developments.
● Religious organizations provided social services to the poor.
● The social gospel was a movement that urged Christians to social service.
Despite the challenge of new ideas, religion continued to be a major force in western society.
Romanticism
Music
Composers tried to stir deep emotions.
Ludwig van Beethoven combined classical forms with a stirring range of sound.
Frederic Chopin conveyed the sorrow of people living under foreign occupation.
Literature
Writers created a new kind of hero, a mysterious, melancholy figure out of step with reality.
Lord Byron described the romantic hero in his poetry.
Charlotte Brontë wove a mysterious tale in Jane Eyre.
Art
Painters broke free from the discipline and rules of the Enlightenment.
J.M.W. Turner captured the beauty and power of nature.
Eugène Delacroix painted dramatic action.
Romantic writers, artists, and composers rebelled against the Enlightenment emphasis on reason. They
glorified nature and sought to excite strong emotions in their audiences.
Realism
By the mid-1800s, a new artistic movement, realism, took hold in the West. Realism was an attempt to
represent the world as it was.
Realists often focused their work on the harsh side of life in cities or villages. Many writers and artists were
committed to improving the lot of the unfortunates whose lives they depicted.
●
The English novelist Charles Dickens vividly portrayed the lives of slum dwellers and factory
workers.
●
The Norwegian dramatist Henrik Ibsen wrote plays that attacked the hypocrisy he observed around
him.
●
The French painter Gustave Courbet focused on ordinary subjects.
The Visual Arts
● By the 1840s, a new art form, photography, was emerging. The first photos were stiff, posed
portraits. In time, photographers used the camera to present the grim realities of life.
● Photography posed a challenge to painters. Why try for realism, they asked, when a camera could
do the same thing better?
● By the 1870s, a group of painters sought to capture the first fleeting impression made by a scene or
an object on the viewer’s eye. This new movement was known as impressionism.
● Later painters, called postimpressionists, developed a variety of styles.
Chapter 23
In 1862, Otto von Bismarck was made chancellor, or prime minister, of Prussia. Within a decade, Bismarck
had united the German states under Prussia.
● Bismarck was a master of Realpolitik, or realistic politics based on the needs of the state. He valued
power over principles.
● Bismarck strengthened the army in preparation for pursuing an aggressive foreign policy.
● In 1864, Bismarck formed an alliance with Austria. Together, they seized the provinces of Schleswig
and Holstein from Denmark and divided up the spoils.
● In 1866, Bismarck attacked and defeated Austria in the Austro-Prussian War, and then annexed, or
took control of, several north German states.
● Bismarck dissolved the Austrian-led German Confederation and created a new confederation
dominated by Prussia.
● In 1870, Bismarck provoked France into the Franco-Prussian War and quickly claimed victory.
William I of Prussia was given the title kaiser, or emperor. In 1871, German nationalists proclaimed the birth
of the Second Reich, or empire.
Bismarck drafted a constitution with a two-house legislature:
●
The Bundesrat, or upper house, was appointed by the rulers of the
German states.
●
The Reichstag, or lower house, was elected by universal male
suffrage.
Because the Bundesrat could veto any decision of the Reichstag, real power remained in the hands of the
emperor and his chancellor.
By the late 1800s, German chemical and electrical industries were setting the standard worldwide. German
shipping was second only to Britain’s among the European powers.
Germany possessed several characteristics that made industrialization possible:
●
Ample iron and coal resources
●
Disciplined and educated work force
●
Rapidly growing population
In the 1850s and 1860s, Germans had founded large companies and built many railroads.
German industrialists were the first to see the value of applied science in developing new products
such as synthetic chemicals and dyes.
Called the Iron Chancellor, Bismarck applied ruthless methods to achieve his goals.
Foreign policy goals:
● Bismarck wanted to keep France weak and isolated while building strong links with Austria.
● Later, Bismarck competed with Britain for colonies to expand Germany’s overseas empire.
Domestic goals:
● Bismarck sought to erase local loyalties and crush all opposition to the imperial state. He targeted
the Catholic Church and the socialists, both of which he saw as a threat to the new German state.
When William II came to power, he wanted to put his own stamp on Germany. During his reign, he
● asked Bismarck to resign, believing that his right to rule came from God and that “there is only one
master in the Reich.”
● resisted efforts to introduce democratic reforms.
● provided services, such as programs for social welfare, cheap transportation, and electricity.
● spent heavily on the German military machine.
● launched an ambitious campaign to expand the German navy and win an overseas empire.
For centuries, Italy had been a battleground for ambitious foreign and local princes. Frequent warfare and
foreign rule had led people to identify with local regions.
The Congress of Vienna divided Italy up among Austrian rulers, Hapsburg monarchs, and a French Bourbon
king.
Nationalist attempts to expel Austrian forces from northern Italy were repeatedly crushed.
Cavour
Garibaldi
Prime minister who believed in Realpolitik.
Long-time nationalist leader who wanted to create
Wanted to end Austrian power in Italy and annex its an Italian republic.
provinces of Lombardy and Venetia.
Captured Sicily and Naples and turned them over
Led Sardinia to provoke a war with Austria. With
to Victor Emmanuel. Shortly afterward, Victor
help from France, Sardinia defeated Austria and
Emmanuel II was crowned king of Italy.
annexed Lombardy.
● Italy had no tradition of unity. Strong regional ties left Italy unable to solve critical national issues.
● An enormous gap existed between the north, which was richer and had more cities, and the south,
which was poor and rural.
● Hostility between Italy and the Roman Catholic Church further divided the nation.
● In the late 1800s, unrest increased as radicals on the left struggled against a conservative right.
Austrian rulers upheld conservative goals against liberal forces. Austria, however, could not hold back the
changes that were engulfing the rest of Europe.
The Hapsburgs presided over a multinational empire, yet continued to ignore the urgent demands of
nationalists.
After Austria was defeated by France and Sardinia in 1859, Emperor Francis Joseph made some limited
reforms. The reforms failed to satisfy the many nationalist groups that wanted self-government.
Austrian rulers upheld conservative goals against liberal forces. Austria, however, could not hold back the
changes that were engulfing the rest of Europe.
The Hapsburgs presided over a multinational empire, yet continued to ignore the urgent demands of
nationalists.
After Austria was defeated by France and Sardinia in 1859, Emperor Francis Joseph made some limited
reforms. The reforms failed to satisfy the many nationalist groups that wanted self-government.
Austria’s defeat in the 1866 war with Prussia brought renewed pressure for change from Hungarians within
the empire. This pressure led to the creation of a new political power known as the Dual Monarchy of
Austria-Hungary.
Under the Dual Monarchy:
● Austria and Hungary were separate states.
● Francis Joseph ruled both, as emperor of Austria and king of Hungary.
● The two states shared ministries of finance, defense, and foreign affairs, but were independent of
each other in all other areas.
● A complex web of competing interests contributed to a series of crises and wars in the Balkans.
● Serbia and Greece had won independence in the early 1800s. However, there were still many Serbs
and Greeks living in the Balkans under Ottoman rule.
The Ottoman empire was home to other national groups, such as Bulgarians and Romanians.
During the 1800s, various subject people staged revolts against the Ottomans, hoping to set up their
own independent states.
● European powers stepped in to divide up Ottoman lands, ignoring the nationalist goals of various
Balkan peoples.
By the 1800s, czars saw the need to modernize but resisted reforms that would undermine their
absolute rule. While czars wavered, Russia fell further behind Western Europe in economic and social
developments.
The rigid social structure was an obstacle to progress:
●
Landowning nobles dominated society and rejected any change that would threaten their
privileges.
●
The majority of Russians were serfs.
Serfdom was inefficient and caused Russia’s economy to remain backward.
●
●
Toward the end of the nineteenth century, Russia finally entered the industrial age.
● The drive to industrialization increased political and social problems. Nobles and peasants opposed
economic growth, fearing the changes brought by the new ways.
● Industrialization created social ills as peasants flocked to the cities to work in factories.
● Radicals preached revolutionary ideas among the new industrial workers.
War broke out between Russia and Japan.
The Russians suffered repeated military defeats.
News of the military disasters unleashed pent-up discontent created by years of oppression.
The czar’s troops fired on protesters on “Bloody Sunday,” destroying the people’s trust and faith in the czar.
Discontent and revolution spread throughout Russia.
Czar Nicholas was forced to announce sweeping reforms. In the October Manifesto, he agreed to summon
a Duma, or elected national legislature.
● The October Manifesto won over moderates, leaving socialists isolated.
● In 1906, the first Duma met, but the czar dissolved it when leaders criticized the government.
● Czar Nicholas appointed a conservative prime minister, Peter Stolypin, who instituted arrests,
pogroms, and executions.
● Stolypin later instituted limited reforms which did not meet the broad needs of most Russians.
● By 1914, Russia was still an autocracy, simmering with unrest.
Chapter 24
Reforming Parliament
In 1815, Britain was a constitutional monarchy. Yet, it was far from democratic:
○ Less than five percent of the people had the right to vote.
○ Wealthy nobles and squires dominated politics.
○ The House of Lords could veto any bill passed by the House of Commons.
○ Catholics and non-Anglican Protestants could not vote or serve in Parliament.
○ Populous new cities had no seats in Parliament, while rural towns with few or no voters still
sent members to Parliament.
○ In 1832, Parliament finally passed the Great Reform Act.
○ It redistributed seats in the House of Commons.
○ It enlarged the electorate by granting suffrage to more men.
The Victorian Age
●
●
Victoria embodied the values of duty, thrift, honesty, hard work, and respectability. She embraced a
strict code of morals and manners.
Under Victoria, the British middle class — and growing numbers of the working class — felt great
confidence in the future. That confidence grew as Britain expanded its already huge empire.
From 1837 to 1901, the greatest symbol in British life was Queen Victoria. Although she exercised little real
political power, she set the tone for what is now called the Victorian age.
A New Era in British Politics
In the 1860s, the old political parties regrouped under new leadership:
○
○
The Tories became the Conservative party, led by Benjamin Disraeli.
The Whigs evolved into the Liberal party, led by William Gladstone.
In the late 1800s, these two parties pushed little by little for suffrage to be extended. By century’s end,
almost-universal male suffrage had been achieved.
In 1911, a Liberal government passed measures to limit the power of the House of Lords. In time, the
House of Lords would become a largely ceremonial body, while the elected House of Commons would reign
supreme.
Social and Economic Reforms
● In 1807, Britain became the first leading European power to outlaw the slave trade. In 1833,
Parliament passed a law banning slavery in all British colonies.
● Laws were passed to reduce the number of capital offenses and end public hanging. Additional
reforms improved prison conditions and outlawed imprisonment for debt.
● Some British tariffs were repealed in the 1820s. In 1846, Parliament finally agreed to repeal the
Corn Laws, which imposed high tariffs on imported grain.
During the early and mid-1800s, Parliament passed a wide variety of important new laws.
Reforms for the Working Class
● Parliament passed laws to regulate the conditions in factories and mines.
● Government and business leaders slowly accepted worker organizations. Workers won higher
wages and shorter hours.
● Social reforms were enacted to benefit the working class. These included improved public health
and housing for workers, free elementary education for all children, and protection for the poor and
disadvantaged.
By the early 1900s, Parliament gradually passed a series of reforms designed to help the workers whose
labor supported the new industrial society.
Votes for Women
● Suffragists led by Emmeline Pankhurst used aggressive tactics and sometimes resorted to violent
protest.
● Many middle-class women disapproved of such radical actions. Yet they, too, spoke up in increasing
numbers.
● Some women, including Queen Victoria, opposed suffrage altogether.
●
Despite these protests, Parliament refused to grant women’s suffrage. Not until 1918 did Parliament
finally grant suffrage to women over age 30. Younger women did not win the right to vote for another
decade.
In Britain, as elsewhere, women struggled for the right to vote against strong opposition.
The Irish Question
The Irish never accepted English rule:
● They resented English settlers, especially absentee landlords.
● Many Irish peasants lived in poverty while paying high rents to landlords living in England.
● The Irish, most of whom were Catholic, were forced to pay tithes to the Church of England.
Irish nationalists campaigned for freedom and justice.
In 1845, a disease destroyed the potato crop, causing a terrible famine called the “Great Hunger.” At least
one million Irish died while the British continued to ship healthy crops outside Ireland. The Great Hunger left
a legacy of Irish bitterness that still exists today.
The Irish struggled for years to achieve home rule, or local self-government. However, Parliament did not
pass a home rule bill until 1914. It then delayed putting the new law into effect until after World War I.
Napoleon III
Domestic Policies
Issued a new constitution that extended democratic rights.
Promoted investment in industry and large-scale ventures.
Legalized labor unions, extended public education to girls, and created a small public health program.
Foreign Policies
Unsuccessfully tried to turn Mexico into a French satellite.
Helped Italian nationalists defeat Austria and gained Nice and Savoy.
Challenges of the Third Republic
● In 1871, an uprising broke out, as rebels set up the Paris Commune. The government violently
suppressed the Paris Commune, leaving bitter memories that deepened social divisions within
France.
● In the first ten years of the Third Republic, 50 different coalition governments were formed and fell.
● A series of political scandals shook public trust in the government.
The Dryfus Affair
In Dryfus affair, a Jewish officer was falsely accused of treason to cover up corruption in the military. The
controversy scarred French politics and society for decades.
● Royalists, ultranationalists, and Church officials charged Dreyfus supporters with undermining
France.
● Dreyfus supporters upheld ideals of justice and equality in the face of massive public anger.
The Dreyfus affair reflected the rise of antisemitism in Europe.
It also helped to stir Theodor Herzl to call for a Jewish state.
Reforms in France
● New laws were passed regulating wages, hours, and safety conditions for workers.
● A system of free public elementary schools was created.
● A law was passed to separate church and state.
● The women’s rights movements made some gains, but women were not granted suffrage until after
World War II.
France achieved serious reforms in the early 1900s.
Territorial Expansion
From the earliest years of its history, the United States followed a policy of expansionism, or extending a
nation’s boundaries.
Expanding Democracy
States slowly expanded suffrage so that by the 1830s, most white men had the right to vote.
Some Americans, called abolitionists, called for an immediate and complete end to slavery.
The women’s rights movement fought for equality and the right to vote.
Three amendments to the Constitution banned slavery throughout the country and granted political rights,
including the right to vote, to African American men.
Still, African Americans faced segregation and economic hardships.
BEFORE THE CIVIL WAR
AFTER THE CIVIL WAR
Expansion of Suffrage in the United States
Economic Growth
● Cotton mills turned out great quantities of mass-produced goods.
● Rich coals and iron resources fed other industries.
● A huge work force, swelled by immigrants, labored in the mines and factories.
● Farm output soared as settlers flooded the fertile Midwest.
● A growing network of transportation and communication aided economic growth.
By 1900, the United States was the world’s leading industrial giant.
Social Reform
● In the late 1800s, farmers and city workers supported the new Populist party. The Populists sought
reforms, such as an eight-hour workday.
● By 1900, reformers known as Progressives again pressed for change. They sought laws to ban child
labor, limit working hours, regulate monopolies, and grant suffrage to women.
The Industrial Revolution brought rapid industrialization and a growing need for reform.
Chapter 25
The New Imperialism
Between 1500 and 1800, European states won empires around the world. However, Europe had little
influence on the lives of the people of these conquered lands.
By the 1800s, Europe had gained considerable power. Encouraged by their new economic and military
strength, Europeans embarked on a path of aggressive expansion that today’s historians call the “new
imperialism.”
Imperialism is the domination by one country of the political, economic, or cultural life of another country or
region.
Causes of Imperialism
Social Darwinism
Many westerners viewed European races as superior to all others.
They saw imperial conquest as nature’s way of improving the human species.
Humanitarian Goals
Many westerners felt concern for their “little brothers” overseas.
Missionaries, doctors, and colonial officials believed they had a duty to spread western civilization.
Political & Military Interests
Merchant ships and naval vessels needed bases around the world.
Western leaders were motivated by nationalism.
Economic Interests
Manufacturers wanted access to natural resources.
Manufacturers hoped for new markets for factory goods.
Colonies offered a valuable outlet for Europe’s growing population.
The Successes of Imperialism
● While European nations had grown stronger in the 1800s, several older civilizations were in decline.
● Europeans had the advantages of strong economies, well-organized governments, and powerful
armies and navies.
● Europeans had superior technology and medical knowledge.
●
In just a few decades, imperialist nations gained control over much of the world. Western imperialism
succeeded for a number of reasons:
Forms of Imperial Rule
A sphere of influence is an area in which an outside power claimed exclusive investment or trading
privileges.
The United States claimed Latin America as its sphere of influence.
In a protectorate, local rulers were left in place but were expected to follow the advice of European
advisers.
A protectorate cost less to run than a colony and usually did not require a large military presence.
Colonies
The French practiced direct rule, sending officials to administer their colonies.
The British practiced on indirect rule, using local rulers to govern their colonies.
The new imperialism took several forms.
Africa in the Early 1800s
Islam had long influenced the coast, where a profitable slave trade was carried on.
Zulu aggression caused mass migrations and wars and created chaos across much of the region.
On the grasslands, Islamic leaders preached jihad, a holy struggle, to revive and purify Islam.
In the forest regions, the Asante controlled smaller states. These smaller tributary states were ready to turn
to Europeans to help them defeat their Asante rulers.
Since long before 1800, the region had close ties to the Muslim world.
In the early 1800s, much of the region remained under the rule of the declining Ottoman empire.
To understand the impact of European domination, we must look at Africa in the early 1800s, before the
scramble for colonies began.
NORTH AFRICA
WEST AFRICA
SOUTH AFRICA
EAST AFRICA
European Contacts Increased
From the 1500s through the 1700s, difficult geography and disease prevented European traders from
reaching the interior of Africa. Medical advances and river steamships changed all that in the 1800s.
Explorers
Explorers were fascinated by African geography but had little understanding of the people they met.
Missionaries
Catholic and Protestant
missionaries sought to win people to Christianity. Most took a paternalistic view of Africans. They urged
Africans to reject their own traditions in
favor of western civilization.
A Scramble for Colonies
King Leopold II of Belgium sent explorers to the Congo
River basin to arrange trade treaties with African leaders.
King Leopold’s activities in the Congo set off a scramble
among other European nations. Before long, Britain, France,
and Germany were pressing for rival claims to the region.
European powers partitioned almost the entire African continent.
At the Berlin Conference, European powers agreed on how they
could claim African territory without fighting amongst themselves.
Imperialism in Africa to 1914
African Resistance
● Algerians battled the French for years.
● The Zulus in southern Africa and the Asante in West Africa battled the British.
● East Africans fought wars against the Germans.
● In Ethiopia, King Menelik II modernized his country. When Italy invaded, Ethiopia was prepared.
Ethiopia was the only nation, aside from Liberia, to preserve its independence.
Europeans met armed resistance across the continent.
What Were Sources of Stress in the Muslim World?
By the 1700s, all three Muslim empires (Mughals in India, the Ottomans in the Middle East, and the
Safavids in Iran) were in decline.
In the 1700s and early 1800s, reform movements sprang up across the Muslim world. Most stressed
religious piety and strict rules of behavior.
● The old Muslim empires faced western imperialism.
The Ottoman Empire
● Ambitious pashas, or provincial rulers, had increased their power.
● As ideas of nationalism spread from Western Europe, internal revolts weakened the multiethnic
Ottoman empire.
● European states sought to benefit from the weakening of the Ottoman empire by claiming lands
under Ottoman control.
● Attempts at westernization by several Ottoman rulers increased tensions. Many officials objected to
changes that were inspired by foreign cultures.
● A reform group called the Young Turks overthrew the sultan.
● Nationalist tensions triggered a brutal genocide of the Armenians, a Christian people in the eastern
mountains of the empire.
●
By the early 1800s, the Ottoman empire faced serious challenges.
The Modernization of Egypt
During his reign, Muhammad Ali:
● improved tax collection
●
●
●
●
●
reorganized the landholding system
backed large irrigation projects to increase farm output
expanded cotton production and encouraged local industry, thereby increasing Egyptian participation
in world trade
brought in western military experts to modernize the army
conquered Arabia, Syria, and Sudan
Called the “father of modern Egypt,” Muhammad Ali introduced political and economic reforms. Before he
died in 1849, he had set Egypt on the road to becoming a major Middle Eastern power.
Iran and the European Powers
Russia wanted to protect its southern frontier and expand into Central Asia.
Britain was concerned about protecting its interests in India.
For a time, Russia and Britain each set up their own spheres of influence, Russia in the north and Britain in
the south.
The discovery of oil in the region in the early 1900s heightened foreign interest in the region.
Russia and Britain persuaded the Iranian government to grant them concessions, or special economic
rights given to foreign powers.
The Sepoy Rebellion: Causes and Effects
The British East India Company:
Causes
● required sepoys, or Indian soldiers in its service, to serve anywhere, including overseas, which
violated Hindu religious law
● passed a law allowing Hindu widows to marry, which undermined Hindu beliefs
● ordered the sepoys to bite off cartridges made of animal fat when loading their rifles, which violated
both Hindu and Muslim religious law
Effects
● The sepoys brutally massacred British men, women, and children.
● The British took terrible revenge, slaughtering thousands of unarmed Indians.
● Both sides were left with a bitter legacy of fear, hatred, and mistrust.
● The British put India directly under British rule, sent more troops to India, and taxed Indians to pay
for the cost of the occupying forces.
British Colonial Rule
● The British built roads and an impressive railroad network.
● The British flooded India with machine-made textiles, ruining India’s once-prosperous hand-weaving
industry.
● Britain transformed Indian agriculture.
● Better health care and increased food production led to rapid population growth. Over-population led
to terrible famines.
● The British revised the Indian legal system.
● British rule brought peace and order to the countryside.
● Upper-class Indians sent their sons to British schools.
After 1858, Parliament set up a system of colonial rule in India.
Imperialism in India to 1858
Different Views on Culture
INDIAN ATTITUDES
Some educated Indians were impressed by British power and technology andurged India to follow a western
model of progress.
Other Indians felt the answer to change lay with their own Hindu or Muslim cultures.
BRITISH ATTITUDES
Most British knew little about Indian achievements and dismissed Indianculture with contempt.
A few British admired Indian theology and philosophy and respected India’s ancient heritage.
During the Age of Imperialism, Indians and British developed different views of each other’s culture.
Indian Nationalism
The British believed that western-educated Indians would form an elite class which would bolster British
rule.
As it turned out, exposure to European ideas had the opposite effect. By the late 1800s, western-educated
Indians were spearheading a nationalist movement.
In 1885, nationalist leaders organized the Indian National Congress. Its members looked forward to eventual
self-rule, but supported western-style modernization.
In 1906, Muslims formed the Muslim League to pursue their own goals, including a separate Muslim state.
The Trade Issue
Prior to the 1800s, Chinese rulers placed strict limits on foreign traders.
China enjoyed a trade surplus, exporting more than it imported.
Westerners had a trade deficit with China, buying more from the Chinese than they sold to them.
In 1842, Britain made China accept the Treaty of Nanjing, the first in a series of “unequal treaties”
that forced China to make concessions to western powers.
China paid a huge indemnity to Britain.
The British gained the island of Hong Kong.
China had to open five ports to foreign trade and grant British citizens in China extraterritoriality.
Internal Problems
● Irrigation systems and canals were poorly maintained, leading to massive flooding of the Huang He
valley.
● The population explosion that had begun a century earlier created a terrible hardship for China’s
peasants.
● An extravagant court, tax evasion by the rich, and widespread official corruption added to the
peasants’ burden.
● The civil service system was rocked by bribery scandals.
● Between 1850 and 1864, peasants took part in the Taiping Rebellion, the most devastating revolt in
history.
By the 1800s, the Qing dynasty was in decline.
Reform Efforts
In the 1860s, reformers launched the “self-strengthening movement” in an effort to westernize and
modernize China.
The movement made limited progress because the government did not rally behind it.
After China was defeated in the Sino-Japanese War, Emperor Guang Xu launched the Hundred Days of
Reform.
Conservatives soon rallied against the reform effort and the emperor was imprisoned.
Imperialism in China to 1914
Fall of the Qing Dynasty
As the century ended, anger grew against foreigners in China.
In the Boxer Rebellion, angry Chinese attacked foreigners across China. In response, western powers and
Japan crushed the Boxers.
Defeat at the hands of foreigners led China to embark on a rush of reforms.
Chinese nationalists called for a constitutional monarchy or a republic.
When Empress Ci Xi died in 1908, China slipped into chaos.
In 1911, the Qing dynasty was toppled.
Sun Yixian was named president of the new Chinese republic. Sun wanted to rebuild China on “Three
Principles of the People”: nationalism, democracy, and economic security for all Chinese.
Chapter 26
Events Leading Up to the Meiji Restoration
By the 1800s, discontent simmered throughout Japan.
The government responded by trying to revive old ways.
The United States forced Japan to grant trading rights and forced
unequal treaties on Japan.
Some Japanese strongly criticized the shogun for not taking a strong stand against the foreigners. Foreign
pressure deepened the social and economic unrest.
Discontented daimyo and samurai overthrew the shogun and “restored” the emperor to power. The Meiji
restoration, which lasted from 1868 to 1912, was a major turning point in Japanese history.
Reforms Under the Meiji
Social Reforms
Ended legal distinctions between classes
Set up schools and a university
Hired westerners to teach the new generation modern technology
Economics
Encouraged Japan’s business class to adopt western methods
Built factories and sold them to wealthy business families, known as zaibatsu
Government
Adopted the German model of government
Set forth the principle that all people were equal under the law
Established a western-style bureaucracy
Used western technology to strengthen the military
Ended the special privilege of samurai
The Meiji reformers wanted to replace the rigid feudal order with a completely new political and social
system and to build a modern industrial economy.
Why Was Japan Able to Modernize So Rapidly?
● Japan was a homogeneous society — that is, it had a common culture and language that gave it a
strong sense of identity.
● Economic growth during the Tokugawa times had set Japan on the road to development.
● The Japanese had experience learning from foreign nations, such as China.
● The Japanese were determined to resist foreign rule.
Japanese Imperialism
In 1894,Japan defeated China in the Sino-Japanese War, gaining treaty ports in China and control
over the island of Taiwan.
● In 1905, Japan defeated Russia in the Russo-Japanese War, gaining control of Korea as well as
rights in parts of Manchuria.
● In 1910, Japan annexed Korea,
● absorbing the kingdom into the
● Japanese empire and ruling it
● for 35 years.
● As with western industrial powers, Japan’s economic needs fed its imperialist desires.
Imperialism in Southeast Asia and the Pacific, 1900
Colonization of Southeast Asia
By the 1890s, Europeans controlled most of Southeast Asia. They:
●
introduced modern technology
●
expanded commerce and industry
●
set up new enterprises to mine tin and harvest rubber
●
brought in new crops of corn and cassava
●
built harbors and railroads
●
●
These changes benefited Europeans far more than the people of Southeast Asia.
In their relentless race for raw materials, new markets, and Christian converts, western industrial powers
gobbled up Southeast Asia.
How Did Siam Maintain Its Independence?
● King Mongkut, who ruled from 1851 to 1868, set Siam on the road to modernization.
● Siam was forced to accept some unequal treaties but escaped becoming a European colony.
● Both Britain and France saw the advantage of making Siam a buffer, or neutral zone, between them.
● In the early 1900s, Britain and France guaranteed Siam its independence.
Imperial Powers in the Pacific
● In the 1800s, the industrial powers began to take an interest in the islands of the Pacific.
● In 1878, the United States secured an unequal treaty from Samoa. Later, the United States,
Germany, and Britain agreed to a triple protectorate over Samoa.
From the mid-1800s, American sugar growers pressed for power in Hawaii. In 1898, the United
States annexed Hawaii.
● At the conclusion of the Spanish-American War, the Philippines was placed under American control.
The United States promised Filipinos self-rule some time in the future.
Canada, 1867-1914
● How Did Canada Achieve Self-Rule?
● Canada’s first European rulers were French.
● When France lost Canada to Britain in 1763, thousands of French-speaking settlers remained.
● In 1791 Britain passed the Canada Act, which created two provinces: English-speaking Upper
Canada and French-speaking Lower Canada.
● During the 1800s, unrest grew in both colonies.
● In 1839, the Durham Report called for the two Canadas to be reunited and given control over their
own affairs.
● In 1840, Parliament passed the Act of Union, a major step toward self-government.
● As Canada expanded westward, John Macdonald and George Étienne Cartier urged confederation,
or unification, of all Canada’s provinces.
● Britain passed the British North America Act of 1867, creating the Dominion of Canada. It united four
provinces into a dominion, or self-governing nation. Six additional provinces later joined the union.
Geography of Australia and New Zealand
Europeans in Australia
● In 1770, Captain James Cook claimed Australia for Britain. At that time, it was too distant to attract
European settlers.
● Australia had long been inhabited by indigenous people, later called Aborigines. When white settlers
arrived, the Aborigines suffered disastrously.
● In 1788, Britain made Australia into a penal colony.
● In the early 1800s, Britain encouraged free citizens to emigrate to Australia. As the newcomers took
over more and more land, they thrust aside or killed the Aborigines.
● In 1851, a gold rush in eastern Australia brought a population boom.
● By the late 1800s, Australia had won a place in a growing world economy.
● New Zealand
● In 1769, Captain Cook claimed New Zealand for
● Britain.
● Missionaries arrived to convert the local people, the Maoris, to Christianity.
● In 1840, Britain annexed New Zealand.
● Colonists took over Maori land and engaged in fierce wars with the Maoris.
● By the 1870s, Maori resistance crumbled. Many Maoris died in the struggle.
● White New Zealanders won independence.
● New Zealand pioneered in several areas of democratic reform.
● In 1893, it became the first nation to give suffrage to women.
● Later, it was in the forefront of other social reforms.
Political Problems
● Many problems had their origins in colonial rule, as independence barely changed the existing social
and political hierarchy.
● With few roads and no traditions of unity, the new nations were weakened by regionalism, loyalty to
a local area.
●
●
During the 1800s, most Latin American nations were plagued by revolts, civil war, and dictatorships.
The Economics of Dependence
Economic dependence occurs when less-developed nations export raw materials and commodities to
industrial nations and import manufactured goods, capital, and technological know-how. The relationship is
unequal because the more developed — and wealthier nation — can control prices and terms of trade.
Under colonial rule, mercantilist policies made Latin America economically dependent on Spain and
Portugal. After independence, this pattern changed very little. The region remained as economically
dependent as before.
The Influence of the United States
In 1823, the United States issued the Monroe Doctrine, which stated that the American continents were no
longer open to colonization by any European powers.
In 1904, the United States issued the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine. Under this policy, the
United States claimed “international police power” in the Western Hemisphere.
●
In the next decade, the United States frequently intervened militarily in Latin American nations to
protect American lives and investments.
In 1903, the United States backed the Panamanians in a revolt against Colombia in order to gain land to
build the Panama Canal.
●
To people in Latin America, the canal was an example of “Yankee Imperialism.”
Imperialism in the Caribbean and South America, 1898–1917
New Economic Patterns
● A truly global economy emerged, dominated by the United States, Britain, France, and Germany.
● Colonial rulers introduced a money economy that replaced the old barter system.
● Mass-produced goods from the industrialized world further disrupted traditional economies.
● Local economies that had once been self-sufficient became dependent on the industrial powers.
Cultural Impact
● As westerners conquered other lands, they pressed subject people to accept “modern” ways. By
this, they meant western ideas, government, technology, and culture.
● Many nonwesterners, especially in conquered lands, came to accept a belief in western superiority.
● The overwhelming successes of the western imperialist nations sapped people’s confidence in their
own leaders and cultures.
● Western culture spread around the world.
New Political Tensions
● By the early 1900s, western-educated elites in Africa and Asia were organizing nationalist
movements to end colonial rule.
● The competition for imperial power was fueling tensions among western nations.
Chapter 27
The Pursuit of Peace
● In 1869, the first modern Olympic games were held. Their founder hoped the games would
promote “love of peace and respect for life.”
● Alfred Nobel set up the annual Nobel Peace Prize to reward people who worked for peace.
● Women’s suffrage organizations supported pacifism, or opposition to all war.
● In 1899, world leaders attended the First Universal Peace Conference. There they set up the Hague
Tribunal, a world court to settle disputes between nations.
By the early 1900s, many efforts were underway to end war and foster understanding between nations.
Nationalism and International Rivalries
Aggressive nationalism was one leading cause of international tensions.
● Nationalist feelings were strong in both Germany and France.
● In Eastern Europe, Pan-Slavism held that all Slavic peoples shared a common nationality. Russia
felt that it had a duty to lead and defend all Slavs.
Imperial rivalries divided European nations.
● In 1906 and again in 1911, competition for colonies brought France and Germany to the brink of war.
The 1800s saw a rise in militarism, the glorification of the military.
● The great powers expanded their armies and navies, creating an arms race that further increased
suspicions and made war more likely.
● Causes and Effects of European Alliances
● Distrust led the great powers to sign treaties pledging to defend one another.
● These alliances were intended to create powerful combinations that no one would dare attack.
● The growth of rival alliance systems increased international tensions.
European Alliances, 1914
Standing Armies in Europe, 1914
In 1914, Archduke Francis Ferdinand of Austria-Hungary announced he would visit Sarajevo, the
capital of Bosnia.
●
At the time, Bosnia was under the rule of Austria-Hungary. But it was also the home of many Serbs
and other Slavs.
News of the royal visit angered many Serbian nationalists.
●
They viewed Austrians as foreign oppressors.
●
The date chosen for the archduke’s visit was a significant date in Serbian history. On that date in
1389, Serbia had been conquered by the Ottoman empire. On the same date in 1912, Serbia had
freed itself from Turkish rule.
Members of a Serbian terrorist group assassinated the Archduke and his wife.
Assassination in Sarajevo
After the assassination of the archduke, Austria sent Serbia an ultimatum, or final set of demands.
Serbia agreed to most, but not all, of the terms of Austria’s ultimatum. As a result, Austria declared war on
Serbia.
●
Germany offered full support to Austria-Hungary. Instead of urging restraint, the kaiser gave Austria
a “blank check.”
●
Serbia sought help from Russia, the champion of Slavic nations. When Austria refused to soften its
demands, Russia began to mobilize.
●
Germany responded by declaring war on Russia.
●
Russia appealed to its ally France. France offered full support to Russia, prompting Germany to
declare war on France.
How Did the Conflict Widen?
The Historians’ View
How could an assassination lead to all-out war in just a few weeks?
Today, most historians agree that all parties must share blame.
●
Each of the great powers believed that its cause was just.
●
Once the machinery of war was set in motion, it seemed impossible to stop.
●
Although leaders made the decisions, most people on both sides were equally committed to military
action.
● The Western Front
● German forces swept through Belgium toward Paris.
● Russia mobilized more quickly than expected.
● Germany shifted some troops to the east to confront Russia, weakening German forces in the west.
● British and French troops defeat Germany in the Battle of the Marne. The battle of the Marne pushed
back the German offensive and destroyed Germany’s hopes for a quick victory on the Western
Front.
● The result was a long, deadly stalemate, a deadlock in which neither side is able to defeat the other.
Battle lines in France remained almost unchanged for four years.
Europe at War, 1914–1918
World War I Technology
Modern weapons added greatly to the destructiveness of the war.
Airplane
A one- or two-seat propeller plane was equipped with a machine gun. At first the planes were used mainly
for observation. Later, “flying aces” engaged in individual combat, though such “dogfights” had little effect on
the war.
Automatic Machine Gun
A mounted gun that fired a rapid, continuous stream of bullets made it possible for a few gunners to mow
down waves of soldiers. This helped create a stalemate by making it difficult to advance across no man’s
land.
Submarine
These underwater ships, or U-boats, could launch torpedoes, or guided underwater bombs. Used by
Germany to destroy Allied shipping, U-boat attacks helped bring the United States into the war.
How Did the War Become a Global Conflict?
The Colonies
The Allies overran German colonies in Africa and Asia.
The great powers turned to their own colonies for troops, laborers, and supplies.
Outside Europe
Japan, allied with Britain, tried to impose a protectorate on China.
The Ottoman empire joined the Central Powers in 1914.
Arab nationalists revolted against Ottoman rule.
Southern Europe
In 1915, Bulgaria joined the Central Powers and helped crush Serbia.
EASTERN EUROPE
In August 1914, Russian armies pushed into eastern Germany.
After Russia was defeated in the battle of Tannenburg, armies in the east fought on Russian soil.
Total War
Warring nations engaged in total war, the channeling of a nation’s entire resources into a war effort.
Economic impact
●
Both sides set up systems to recruit, arm, transport and supply huge fighting forces.
●
All nations except Britain imposed universal military conscription, or “the draft.”
●
Governments raised taxes, borrowed money, and rationed food and other products.
Propaganda
●
Both sides waged a propaganda war. Propaganda is the spreading of ideas to promote a cause or
to damage an opposing cause.
Women and War
Women played a critical role in total war:
● As men left to fight, women took over their jobs and kept national companies going.
● Many women worked in war industries, manufacturing weapons and supplies.
● Women grew food when shortages threatened.
● Some women joined branches of the armed forces.
● Women worked as nurses close to the front lines.
Collapsing Morale
● As morale collapsed, troops mutinied or deserted.
● Long casualty lists, food shortages, and the failure of generals to win promised victories led to calls
for peace.
● In Russia, soldiers left the front to join in a full-scale revolution back home.
By 1917, the morale of both troops and civilians had plunged.
Why Did the United States Enter the War?
● German submarines were attacking merchant and passenger ships carrying American citizens.
In May 1915, a German submarine torpedoed the British liner Lusitania, killing 1,200 passengers,
including 120 Americans.
● Many Americans felt ties of culture and language to Britain and sympathized with France as another
democracy.
● In early 1917, the British intercepted a telegram sent by German foreign minister, Arthur
Zimmerman. It revealed that, in exchange for Mexican support, Germany had offered to help Mexico
reconquer New Mexico, Texas, and Arizona.
● Campaign to Victory
● In 1917, The United States declared war on Germany.
● By 1918, about two million American soldiers had joined the Allies on the Western Front.
● The Germans launched a huge offensive, pushing the Allies back.
● The Allies launched a counteroffensive, driving German forces back across France and Germany.
● Germany sought an armistice, or agreement to end fighting, with the Allies. On November 11, 1918,
the war ended.
President Woodrow Wilson issued the Fourteen Points, a list of his terms for resolving World War I and
future wars. He called for:
●
freedom of the seas
●
free trade
●
large-scale reductions of arms
●
an end to secret treaties
●
self-determination, or the right of people to choose their own form of government, for Eastern
Europe
●
the creation of a “general association of nations” to keep the peace in the future
Cost of War
●
More than 8.5 million people died. Twice that number had been wounded.
● Famine threatened many regions.
● Across the European continent, homes, farms, factories, roads, and churches had been shelled to
rubble.
● People everywhere were shaken and disillusioned.
● Governments had collapsed in Russia, Germany, Austria-Hungary, and the Ottoman empire.
Deaths
in Battle
Allies
France
1,357,800
British empire 908,371
Russia
1,700,000
Italy
462,391
United States 50,585
Others
502,421
Central Powers
Germany
1,808,546
Austria-Hungary
922,500
Ottoman empire
325,000
Wounded
in Battle
4,266,000
2,090,212
4,950,000
953,886
205,690
342,585
4,247,143
3,620,000
400,000
The Paris Peace Conference
The delegates to the Paris Peace Conference faced many difficult issues:
●
The Allied leaders had different aims.
●
The Italians insisted that the Allies honor their secret agreement to gain Austria-Hungary. Such
secret agreements violated Wilson’s principle of self-determination.
●
Many people who had been ruled by Russia, Austria-Hungary, or the Ottoman empire now
demanded national states of their own. The territories claimed by these people often overlapped, so
it was impossible to satisfy them all.
The Treaty of Versailles
The Treaty:
forced Germany to assume full blame for causing the war.
imposed huge reparations upon Germany.
The Treaty aimed at weakening Germany by:
○ limiting the size of the German military,
○ returning Alsace and Lorraine to France,
○ removing hundreds of miles of territory from Germany,
○ stripping Germany of its overseas colonies.
○
○
The Germans signed the treaty because they had no choice. But German resentment of the Treaty of
Versailles would poison the international climate for 20 years and lead to an even deadlier world war.
Europe in 1914 and 1920 (2 maps)
Widespread Dissatisfaction
Eastern Europe remained a center of conflict.
Colonized peoples from Africa to the Middle East and across Asia were angry that self-determination was
not applied to them.
Italy was angry because it did not get all the lands promised in a secret treaty with the Allies.
Japan was angry that western nations refused to honor its claims in China.
Russia resented the reestablishment of a Polish nation and three Baltic states on lands that had been part
of the Russian empire.
Long-Term Causes
Immediate Causes
Imperialist and economic rivalries among
Austria-Hungary’s annexation of Bosnia
European powers
and Herzegovina
European alliance system
Fighting in the Balkans
Militarism and arms race
Assassination of Archduke Francis
Nationalist tensions in Balkans
Ferdinand
German invasion of Belgium
Immediate Effects
Long-Term Effects
Enormous cost in lives and money
Economic impact of war debts on Europe
Russian Revolution
Emergence of United States and Japan as
Creation of new nations in Eastern Europe
important powers
Requirement that Germany pay reparations Growth of nationalism in colonies
German loss of its overseas colonies
Rise of fascism
Balfour Declaration
World War II
League of Nations