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Origins of the Modern
International System
World Politics and Economics:
1648-1945
(Part I)
Politics before Nations
Before the 17th
century, political
entities were
defined by:



Ruling elites
Religion.
 Political units were:




City-states,
Feudal lordships,
Dynastic kingdoms,
Religious empires
 Muslim Caliphate
 Holy Roman
Empire.
 Leaders usually
based their authority
on tradition, force, or
religious sanction

Niccolo Machiavelli
– The Prince.
 The concept of state
sovereignty was not
yet established,
rulers had to:


Constantly defend
their authority from
dynastic rivals and
Domestic and
foreign challengers.
 Trade was important, but risky;

Commerce was often subject to:
 Piracy,
 Blockade,
 Tariffs and taxation.
 In the absence of enforceable
international law or treaties:

Trade and relations among rulers were
generally unpredictable and fragmented.
Thirty Years' War

After the Reformation
challenged papal
authority over
Western Christianity,

Many European
rulers broke away
from the political
and religious
authority of the Holy
Roman Empire.

Henry VIII
Peace of Westphalia
 The Thirty Years' War ended with the
Peace of Westphalia (1648),

It established the principles of:
 Sovereignty
and
 Collective security.
Sovereignty
 Sovereignty – political independence and
ultimate legal authority over internal affairs;

Westphalia recognized that this rested with secular
rulers rather than with the Pope, the Church, or the
Holy Roman Empire.
Collective Security
 Collective security –
the principle that
states should unite in
opposition to blatant
aggression by one
state against
another.
 These principles remain key features of
the contemporary international system.

ex. Collective security & sovereignty were
used to justify the U.S.-led coalition's
military operations against Iraq in the
Persian Gulf War in 1990-91.
 While
the UN authorized the use of force to
oppose Iraq's aggression against Kuwait, it
refused to violate Iraq's sovereignty by
sanctioning intervention into Iraq's domestic
affairs.
 The contradictions between sovereignty
and collective security became
immediately apparent, however.


In an anarchic system of sovereign
states, conflicts of interest and shifts of
alliances are practically inevitable.
Objective determination of aggression
and achievement of consensus to enforce
collective security are inherently difficult
in such a system.
 Portugal and Holland
could not defend
their colonial
outposts;

By 1700, Britain and
France emerged as
the leading colonial
powers.
 Britain possessed domestic and
geographic advantages over France in
their colonial competition,

This became a driving force in world
politics in the 18th century.
The Great Powers
 The requirements for Great Power
status have always been imprecisely
defined,

In general great powers are:

Economically and militarily strong states
that do not depend on other states for their
security;
 Great Powers are the major “players” in
the “game” of international politics,



Have a relatively large territory and
population,
A well-organized military,
And a strong economy.
 The ranks of the European Great
Powers changed over time

Throughout the 18th century France,
England, Austria, Russia, Prussia, and the
Ottoman Empire were recognized as Great
Powers.
 The interests of the Great Powers
frequently conflicted,

But most sought to prevent any single
power from dominating the European
system.
 Therefore,
the Great Powers entered into
many shifting alliances to preserve the
balance of power – to prevent one state from
becoming dominant.
“World Wars” of the 18th
Century
 While most wars of this period were
limited in scope , three major conflicts
in the 18th century included:


Significant fighting within Europe and
Combat in the European powers’ colonial
empires in:




Asia,
Africa,
North America
South America.
War of the Spanish
Succession (1702-1713)
 The “Grand Alliance”
of Austria, England,
and the Netherlands
prevented an attempt
by France's King
Louis XIV to
establish French
domination over
Spain.
War of the Austrian
Succession (1740-1748)
 Saw France and Spain support a
successful attempt by King Frederick II
(“the Great”) of Prussia to take Silesia
from Austria.
Seven Years' War (1756-1763)
 Austria, France, and Russia opposed
England and Prussia.

Though surrounded by enemies in
continental Europe, superior military
organization and Frederick the Great's
leadership allowed Prussia to fight its
adversaries to a standstill.
 Meanwhile, England and France fought
for each other's colonies in:



North America,
West Indies,
India.
 England gained vast
territories in North
America (including
Canada) and
established its
domination of India
as a result of the
war,

However, England
and France ran up
huge war debts in
the process.
Aftermath of War and Prelude
to Revolution
 Both England and France had to:


Raise taxes dramatically and
Look for new revenues to finance the
massive debts accumulated during the
Seven Years' War.
 Attempts to raise extra revenues
prompted Britain's American colonies to
revolt over “taxation without
representation”;
 France, however, continued to face a
political and financial crisis as a result of
its war debts.
The French Revolution (17891793)

It toppled the French
monarchy and struck
terror in the crowned
heads of Europe.



The revolution,
inspired in large
part by the
philosophies of the
Enlightenment,
promoted two
ideologies:
Nationalism
Liberalism
Nationalism
 Nationalism held that
each nation should
have its own
independent state;

It focused popular
loyalty on the nation
rather than the
monarch.
Liberalism
 Liberalism argued that:


The power of government should be
vested in citizens, not monarchs,
Government should allow individuals more
freedom and responsibility over their own
thoughts and actions.
 The French Revolution created a new
security dilemma in Europe:

The success of the Revolution, with its
slogan of liberty, egalite, fraternite and the
ideologies it promoted threatened
European monarchs;
 France feared that the monarchs would
attempt counterrevolutionary
intervention.

To defend France and spread the
revolution, the radical French regime
raised an army of conscripts owing loyalty
to the nation rather to a king.
 Revolutionary turmoil
in France allowed
Napoleon Bonaparte
to seize power in
1799 and have
himself crowned
Emperor of the
French in 1804.
The Napoleonic Era
 Under Napoleon's rule, France attained
temporary domination of Europe with a
series of stunning military victories,
establishing liberal institutions in the
countries it controlled.
 By 1810, France controlled Spain, the
Netherlands, Switzerland, Poland, and most of
Germany and Italy
 And was allied with Austria, Prussia, and
Denmark.
 But was opposed by Britain, which established
control of the seas after the naval battle of
Trafalgar (1805).
 The Napoleonic social and political
institutions established in French
satellites greatly:


Increased the efficiency of government and
Government's responsiveness to broader
segments of society.
 Napoleonic warfare, fought to establish
nations and topple monarchies, was far
more costly and destructive than the
limited warfare of the 18th century;


Millions of soldiers were mobilized,
Decisive battles of 500,000 or more troops
caused casualties and devastation on a
scale unseen since the Thirty Years' War.
Napoleon's Downfall
 Three factors led to the breakdown of the
French Empire and Napoleon's eventual
defeat:



The Continental System
The Peninsular War
Napoleon's ill-advised invasion of
Russia
The Continental System
 Napoleon's embargo on trade with Britain
alienated many French controlled and allied
states that profited from trade with England
and its colonies.
Invasion of Russia (1812)
 (1812) overextended French forces in a
disastrous campaign.
Waterloo

Britain, Austria, Prussia, and Russia united
to defeat France and force Napoleon to
abdicate in 1814;

Napoleon returned from exile to lead France
once again in 1815,

But was defeated by British, Prussian, and
Dutch forces at the Battle of Waterloo.
Napoleon's Legacy

Napoleon
influenced legal
and governing
systems all over the
world.
 During the
Napoleonic Era
much of Latin
America achieved
independence.
The Concert of Europe

The Congress of Vienna
After Napoleon's defeat in 1814,
representatives of the Great Powers
gathered in Vienna to restore Europe
to “normalcy”


(To reestablish the monarchical system
existing before the French Revolution).
Normalcy
 The Congress adopted the following provisions in an
attempt to preserve peace and the balance of power in
Europe:

The French monarchy was restored


Neutral buffer states were established to contain future
French expansion.


Switzerland
Territorial changes were made throughout Europe,


France was forced to pay indemnities to the victors.
Mostly in favor of Prussia and Russia.
The Concert of Europe was established to promote
cooperation between the Great Powers against future
threats.
The Concert of Europe

France, Britain, Austria,
Russia, and Prussia
agreed to:



Meet periodically to
review European
affairs
Hold special
consultations to
manage crises.
The Concert was based
on the principle of
collective security

The Great Powers
were formally
committed to unite
against aggression.
 The main goals of the congress were to:


Maintain the political status quo against the
threat of revolution and nationalism
Preserve the strategic balance of power in
Europe.
 From the outset, however, the Congress
was shackled with inherent weaknesses
Weaknesses
 Realpolitik conflicts among the Great Powers
continued,

It undermined the principle of collective security.
 Britain, with its strong democratic institutions
and emerging liberal views on trade and
human rights, disagreed with the goal of the
conservative powers to suppress liberalism
and nationalism.
 The Concert had no effective means of
enforcing cooperation among the Great
Powers.
The Industrial Revolution

The Industrial
Revolution, which first
began in Britain the late
18th century,


Changed the
organization of
industrial production
Harnessed new
sources of energy,
especially steam
power.
Social, Economic and
Strategic Impact
 The social, economic,
and strategic impact of
the Industrial Revolution
was tremendous:


Factories produced
more new products
faster than ever before,
Manufacturing,
transportation, and
communication
became mechanized.
 International trade and investment
skyrocketed,
 Competition among industrialized states
for markets and raw materials grew.
Spread of Industrialization
 The spread of industrialization gradually
but profoundly changed the European
system.




Britain industrialized first,
Followed later by Germany and France,
Still later by Austria,
Much later by Russia;
 Britain’s
early lead gave it significant
advantages, until it was eclipsed by
Germany.
Unification of Italy and Germany

Italian Unification

Italian nationalism
was led by the Count
di Cavour of
Piedmont-Sardinia
and Giuseppe
Garibaldi.

Piedmont, Sicily,
and Naples
united with other
Italian states to
form the
Kingdom of Italy
in 1871.
German Unification

German unification
was masterminded
by Otto von
Bismarck, the “Iron
Chancellor” of
Prussia.

Bismarck's foreign
policy was
determined almost
exclusively by
realpolitik.
 An aristocratic landowner, he had little
interest in liberal ideas initially, but
realized that nationalism could be used as
a means to:



Increase Prussia's power,
Enlist the aid of the middle classes,
Address the concerns of the masses.
 Using superior military organization,
rapid mobilization, and modern
technology,

In January 1871, the formation of a
German Empire was declared;
 The
empire included two provinces seized
from France, Alsace and Lorraine, even
though the population of Lorraine was largely
French.
 German unification radically altered the
European system and balance of power.



Germany became the strongest power in
continental Europe.
The proclamation of the German Empire in
Versailles humiliated France and resulted in the
rise of French desire to avenge a defeat.
The rapid success of Prussian armies against
Austria and France led European military planners
to believe that future wars would be decided
quickly.
Imperialism in the Industrial
Era

The demand for raw materials from
the Industrial Revolution made
imperialism even more beneficial for
industrializing nations.
 Industrialization and technological
advances gave Europe advantages
over traditional African and Asian
states.
 Britain's naval and economic power
allowed it to impose a pax Britannica
(“British peace”), discouraging major
war by threatening aggressors with
embargoes and other economic
sanctions.
 By 1897, the “sun never set” on the British
empire

Britain's primacy in the colonial world was
indisputable,
 But its ability to maintain this vast empire was
open to question.
Imperial Rivals Sought Power
 Following the Napoleonic Wars, France
built an extensive empire,

Especially in Africa and Indochina;

The French saw their goal as bringing
culture and civilization to backward peoples,
attempting to assimilate and colonize them
to the French way of life.
Bismarckian System
In the last decade of the 19th century,
Bismarck used a series of defensive
alliances known as the Bismarckian
system to:



Protect German security,
Forestall war between the Great
Powers.
 The objectives of the system were to:

Keep Germany, Austria-Hungary and
Russia together, while keeping France
isolated.

Italy was brought into the system in 1882
with the Triple Alliance among Germany,
Austria-Hungary, and Italy.
 Bismarck's system helped moderate
conflicts between the Great Powers, but
by 1888 the system was on the verge
of breaking down.



Russia was becoming increasingly
distrustful of Germany.
Britain and France had settled most of
their differences.
Conflict between Russia and AustriaHungary increased
 German expansionists pressed for the
acquisition of overseas colonies and
political equality with Britain and
France.

German domestic politics resulted in
Bismarck's dismissal in 1890; by this
time, most of Europe had enjoyed nearly
two decades of peace, but the seeds of a
great-power war had been sown.
International System on the
Eve of the 20th Century

By 1890, the stability Europe had
enjoyed under the Concert of Europe
was rapidly collapsing.
The Concert's and Bismarck's systems
of alliances had been able to resolve the
conflicts between the Great Powers that
arose from the security dilemma


But were incapable of dealing with conflicts
between nations.
 In general, the Concert and other
European institutions were able to cope
well with the economic globalization
caused by the Industrial Revolution,

But could not handle the increasing
political fragmentation brought about by
social changes and nationalism.
 The extent of European power and
influence throughout the world by the
end of the century meant that in all
likelihood any major conflict between the
Great Powers would become a global
war.