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Chapter 2 – Forming a New Nation
Section Notes
Video
The Revolutionary Era
Creating a New Government
Forging the New Republic
The Revolutionary Era
Creating a New Government
Forging the New Republic
Quick Facts
Maps
Tensions between Britain and America,
1765-1775
Strengths and Weaknesses of the
Continental and British Armies
The Revolutionary Era
Weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation
The Great Compromise
Checks and Balances
Creating a New Government
Causes and Effects of the War of 1812
Federal Office Terms and Requirements
Federal Judicial System
Federalism
Visual Summary: The Constitution of the
United States
Battles of the American
Revolution, 1778-1781
The Louisiana Purchase
Images
Signing of the Declaration of
Independence
The Constitutional Convention
The Burning of the White House
Poll Tax Amendment
The Revolutionary Era
The Main Idea
America declared independence from Great Britain in 1776
and won the Revolutionary War in 1783.
Reading Focus
•
What events led to the American Revolution?
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Why did the colonists declare independence?
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What key events took place as the Revolution continued?
•
How did Americans achieve victory?
British Laws against the Colonists
The Sugar Act - 1764
The Stamp Act - 1765
• First British law to raise war debt • Required colonists to pay for an
money from colonists
official government stamp on certain
• Taxed sugar from French and
paper items
Spanish West Indies, forcing
• Marked the first time the British had
colonists to buy British sugar
taxed the colonists directly, which
• Colonial leader Sam Adams called
Americans openly protested
this “taxation without
• Parliament eventually repealed the
representation.”
Stamp Act.
The Quartering Act - 1765
• Required colonists to provide
food, drink, fuel, living space,
and transportation to British
soldiers living in America
• Was the policy in Britain, but
colonists saw it as an attack on
their rights
The Townshend Act - 1767
• The Townshend Acts taxed certain
goods imported from England.
• It also also gave customs officers the
right to search any house for
smuggled goods — without a search
warrant.
• Powerful opposition to these acts
forced Britain to send troops to
enforce them.
Political Protest Continues
The Boston Tea Party
• In 1773, the Tea Act gave the British East India control over the tea market.
• Colonists resisted Britain’s control by throwing the company’s tea overboard.
• Furious British officials enacted four harsh laws, known as the Intolerable
Acts, to punish Massachusetts and set an example for other colonies.
The Boston Massacre
• In March 1770, five colonists died when British soldiers shot at a protesting
crowd, including Crispus Attucks, an African/Native American sailor.
• These killings were called the Boston Massacre.
The First Continental Congress
• In September 1774, delegates from 12 colonies met in Philadelphia at the
First Continental Congress.
• The delegates agreed to issue a Declaration of Rights, boycott goods, form a
military force of minutemen, and meet again in the spring.
The Battles of Lexington and Concord
• Before the Continental Congress could meet again, war broke
out.
• British general Thomas Gage was ordered to arrest local Patriot
leaders, including Samuel Adams and John Hancock, as well as
capture weapons the Patriots stored in Concord, Massachusetts.
• In April 1775, about 700 British troops set out for Concord.
• Colonial alarm riders, including Paul Revere, rode out to warn the
Patriots.
• By the time the British reached Lexington, about 70 minutemen
were waiting.
• A shot rang out and fighting began, killing eight colonists in the
Battle of Lexington.
• The British then marched to Concord, where a stronger force of
minutemen forced them to retreat to Boston.
Declaring Independence
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The Second Continental Congress met a few weeks after the Battles of
Lexington and Concord, and included Benjamin Franklin, John Hancock,
and Thomas Jefferson.
Attitudes toward Britain were mixed. All delegates felt the taxes were
unfair, but only some wanted full independence.
The Congress created a Continental Army, led by George Washington.
Other delegates sent a petition to King George III asking for reconciliation.
While the Congress met, battle raged on. Key battles included:
Battle of Bunker Hill
Battle of Dorchester Heights
• British troops retreated to Boston
after the Battle of Concord and
were met by 10,000 militia.
• Two weeks after Bunker Hill,
Washington took command of the
struggling Continental Army.
• The British won the battle, but the
Patriots’ brave defense
encouraged resistance.
• Washington’s strategies allowed
the Patriots to retake Boston and
fortify Dorchester Heights.
The Declaration of Independence
•
Intensifying battles made more colonists lean toward independence, as
did anger at the king’s unfavorable response to their petition for
reconciliation.
•
Thomas Paine’s pamphlet Common Sense echoed John Locke’s
Enlightenment thinking, calling for independence from Britain.
•
In June of 1776 Virginia issued a citizens’ declaration of rights, the first
official call for independence, which Congress discussed.
•
The Declaration of Independence formally announced the break with
Great Britain. It expressed three main ideas
–“Inalienable rights” such as life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness
– King George III passed unfair laws and unfairly taxed the colonies
– Britain had violated the social contract by passing these laws.
•
Jefferson wrote the first draft, but the final document was presented on
July 2, 1776. Congress approved it two days later on July 4th.
The Revolution Continues
Defeats and Victories
Saratoga and its Aftermath
• Washington moved the
Continental Army to New York,
where General Howe attacked.
• Two British generals tried to
cut off New England from the
rest of the colonies by
attacking from two sides.
• The British took control of New
York City and Washington’s
troops were forced into
Pennsylvania.
• British troops settled down in
New Jersey for the winter.
• Washington ignored traditional
European warfare tactics and
attacked in winter while the
British and Hessians (hired
German soldiers) slept.
• Washington drove the British
out of Princeton.
• One general did not show up,
and the colonists attacked
and defeated the other’s
troops in Saratoga, New York.
• The Battle of Saratoga turned
the Revolutionary War in the
colonists’ favor.
• Washington’s troops retired to
Valley Forge in Pennsylvania,
where a harsh winter and lack
of supplies killed many.
Strengths and Weaknesses
Continental Army
Strengths:
– Strong leadership
– Fighting for a cause they
believed in
– Fighting on home territory
British Army (Redcoats)
Strengths:
– Well-trained military
– Ample resources
– Alliances with Native
Americans, loyalists, and some
slaves
Weaknesses:
– Small, untrained military
– Shortage of resources
– Weak central government
Weaknesses:
– Unfamiliar, far away territory
– Fighting for a cause they didn’t
necessarily believe in
African Americans and Women in the Revolutionary War
• When Washington took over the army, he barred black soldiers from enlisting,
but after Valley Forge more manpower was needed and the order was
rescinded.
• While men fought, women took over important duties at home.
The Last Days of the Revolutionary War
War in the West and the South
• After Saratoga, action shifted to the South and the western frontier.
• Americans won important victories in in present–day Ohio, Indiana, Illinois,
Michigan, Wisconsin and part of Minnesota.
The Colonists Gain Allies
• Victories gained the colonists help from Europeans, including Bernardo de
Gálvez, governor of Spanish Louisiana and Marquis de Lafayette, of France.
• These allies would eventually help the colonists win the war.
The British Shift Strategies
• In 1778 the British stopped sending troops, instead they encouraged loyalists
in the colonies to rise up against the Patriots.
• Patriot raiders such as Francis Marion, the “Swamp Fox,” hindered loyalists.
• The British army won in North Carolina, but British losses were so great that
their commander, Lord Cornwallis, stopped the campaign against the
colonists.
American Victory
• The colonists, helped by Lafayette’s French troops, forced the
British to Yorktown Peninsula in Chesapeake Bay.
• Cornwallis built a fort and waited for the British to rescue them.
• Washington saw his chance and blocked British ships from
rescuing Cornwallis’s troops.
• After bombardment by land and sea, Cornwallis surrendered on
behalf of the British.
• The Battle of Yorktown was the last major battle of the
Revolutionary War.
Though some hoped that America would remain part of the
British Empire, the September 3, 1783, Treaty of Paris
formalized America’s independence from Britain.
Creating a New Government
The Main Idea
After the Revolution, American leaders struggled to form a national
government and eventually wrote the Constitution.
Reading Focus
• What were the weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation?
• What did the founders discuss when drafting the Constitution?
• What was involved in ratifying the Constitution?
Problems with the Articles of Confederation
•
The states formed new governments quickly after the Declaration of
Independence, but had trouble with central government principles.
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Americans wanted a republic that ruled “with consent of the governed”
instead of a monarchy or supreme authority.
•
After the Revolutionary War, America still worked under the Articles of
Confederation, which established an association of independent states.
•
Under the Articles, the central government had power to set national
policies and carry on foreign relations.
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The Articles also had several weaknesses:
Congress could not impose taxes to repay war debts.
Congress could not regulate trade.
9 of 13 states needed to agree in order to pass laws.
All states had to agree to amend the Articles.
No executive branch to enforce laws passed by Congress
No judicial branch to interpret laws passed by Congress
The Pros and Cons of Independence
Struggles
• Economic problems in the states:
– New England’s valuable trade
with Britain and British West
Indies was ruined.
– Paper money issued during
the war wasn’t backed up with
gold or silver, which led to
inflation.
– The states collected taxes,
sometimes in “hard currency”
instead of paper money.
– People who could not pay
taxes were jailed.
• Poverty led to many riots:
– During Shays’s Rebellion in
Massachusetts, angry farmers
shut down debtor courts.
Important Plans
• In 1784 Jefferson proposed a
plan to settle the Northwest
Territory
– Each of ten districts could
join Congress when
population hit 20,000.
– Later, districts could be
admitted as new states.
• Congress had its own plan
– Surveyed land was divided
into a grid of townships.
– Each had 36 sections, four
government owned.
• In 1787 Congress passed a law
for western settlement,
promising religious freedom but
not allowing slavery.
The Constitutional Convention
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Frustration with the Articles of Confederation built for years
among many Americans.
In the fall of 1786 George Washington and James Madison
convened a meeting of the states in Maryland, but delegates from
only five showed up.
Congress then called the states to meet in Philadelphia in 1787
for a Constitutional Convention.
James Madison kept a diary with a detailed account of this event,
which was a turning point in American history.
Because of his role, James Madison is often called the Father of
the Constitution.
The convention unanimously chose George Washington as its
president.
Plans for Representation in Government
Virginia Plan
New Jersey Plan
• Proposed a new form
of government with
three branches:
executive, judicial,
legislative
• Retained many
of the features
of the
Confederation
• The legislature would
be bicameral, with
an upper and lower
house.
• Members would be
chosen in proportion
to each state’s
population.
• Disliked by small
states that would
have less power
• Gave Congress
additional
powers
• Suggested a
one-house
legislature with
equal
representation
for each state
• Tried to equalize
power for states
The Great
Compromise
• A Connecticut plan
to balance state
powers
• Two-house
legislature: upper
house Senate
represented the
state, the lower
house the
population.
• The Three-Fifths
Compromise
allowed only part of
the slave population
to be counted.
Providing Check and Balances
•
The delegates needed to find a balance of power between the
Congress and the president.
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Questions arose about states’ rights versus federal powers.
•
The outcome was a compromise: instead of people directly
choosing a president, state legislatures chose electors to do it.
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The delegates set up a system of checks and balances.
Legislative Branch
•
Makes the laws
•
Gives advice and
consent to
president
•
Can pass over
vetoes with twothirds vote
Executive Branch
• President and
cabinet
• Carries out laws
• Makes treaties and
nominates judges
• Vetoes laws
Judicial Branch
• Supreme Court
and lower courts
• Interprets laws
as they relate to
the Constitution
Ratifying the Constitution
Debates
When the Constitution was finally published, supporters and
opponents presented their arguments.
Federalists
• Wanted to ratify, or accept, the Constitution
• Believed in a strong national government
• Believed the separation of powers in the Constitution
limited government power
• Popular with the wealthy
• Inspired the Federalist Papers, essays written by James
Madison, Alexander Hamilton, and John Jay, which offered
practical arguments for strong government
Antifederalists
• Feared a strong national government would lead to tyranny
and abuse of states’ rights and individual liberties
• Did not trust government to protect people’s rights
• Popular with farmers and planters
• Thought the new government favored the wealthy and
educated over ordinary people
The Fight for Amendments
• Before agreeing to ratify the Constitution, Antifederalists
wanted a Bill of Rights added to protect individual liberties.
• Only 9 of 13 states needed to ratify the Constitution
• Some important states only agreed because they were
promised a Bill of Rights.
• Article V gave Congress or state conventions the right to
propose amendments, which then went to the states for
approval.
• James Madison, a supporter of the Constitution, took
charge of getting a Bill of Rights through Congress so that
the document would finally be ratified.
• By 1791, ten approved amendments became the Bill of
Rights.
The Bill of Rights
The Bill of Rights protected individual rights.
• The first eight amendments dealt with individual civil
liberties.
• The Ninth Amendment stated that listing certain rights in this
document did not mean that other unlisted rights did not
exist.
• The Tenth Amendment defined two types of government
powers: delegated and reserved powers.
– Delegated powers are those given out to the three
branches of government.
– Reserved powers belonged to the states or the people.
• Most of the amendments echoed rights listed in the Virginia
Declaration of Rights, written by George Mason.
Forging the New Republic
The Main Idea
Under presidents Washington, Adams, and Jefferson, the United
States continued to shape its new government while facing both
foreign and domestic challenges.
Reading Focus
• What actions did Washington take when he became president?
• What challenges did the United States face in the 1790s?
• What were the main events of Jefferson’s presidency?
• What were the causes and effects of the War of 1812?
Washington Takes Action as President
•
The Constitution mentions “heads of the executive departments” but does
not specify what those cabinet departments are.
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Congress created the first three executive departments and Washington
began to choose his cabinet:
Henry Knox became secretary of war.
Alexander Hamilton, a Federalist, became secretary of the treasury.
Thomas Jefferson, an Antifederalist, was secretary of state.
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Hamilton wanted a strong centralized nation with a role in world affairs.
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Jefferson envisioned a more rural nation with power residing in state
governments.
– Along with James Madison and Jefferson, those who shared these
beliefs called themselves the Democratic-Republicans.
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The Judiciary Act of 1789 organized a judicial branch with a six-person
Supreme Court, as well as district courts and circuit courts of appeal.
– Washington named John Jay as chief justice of the Supreme Court.
Hamilton’s Financial Plan
• The new government had no money to pay for daily expenses, and
owed money to foreign nations, private lenders, and soldiers.
• Hamilton did not share Republican ideals, and believed the wealthy
were the key to a stable government.
• Hamilton created a controversial three–point plan.
1. The federal
government
should take on
both state and
national debt.
2. The government
should raise
revenue by
passing tariffs.
3. The United States
should create a
national bank and
mint to stabilize
the banking
system.
• Some thought Hamilton’s plan favored the wealthy who bought war
bonds from original bondholders.
• Southerners protested — they had already paid their war debts.
• Tensions in the North and South were partially solved by moving the
capital from New York to Philadelphia, and finally to Washington, D.C.
The Bank of the United States
•
By far the most controversial part of Hamilton’s plan was the idea of a
national bank.
– Some people, such as Jefferson, believed the government did not
have the power to create a national bank because it was not
specifically granted in the Constitution.
• Those people were called strict constructionists.
– Some people, such as Hamilton, pointed out that the Constitution
allows actions that are not strictly prohibited, including a creating a
national bank.
• Those people were called loose constructionists.
•
Jefferson urged Washington to veto the bank bill, but Hamilton convinced
him that being flexible was important to the government.
•
Hamilton and Jefferson’s differences led to the creation of political
parties.
– Those who supported Jefferson were the Democratic-Republicans.
– Those who supported Hamilton were the Federalists.
The United States Faces Challenges Abroad
The French Revolution
• In 1789 France exploded into revolution
over food shortages, high prices, and
taxes.
• The revolutionary government won and
France became a constitutional
monarchy.
• In 1793, radicals called Jacobians took
over, declared a republic, and beheaded
and imprisoned thousands in a Reign of
Terror.
• Democratic-Republicans supported the
French Revolution because it was a turn
toward liberty.
• Federalists were unhappy that the
government was overthrown and that
France was at war.
• Washington issued the Neutrality
Proclamation because he believed that
the prosperity of the U.S. depended on
neutrality.
Jay’s and Pinckney’s Treaties
• Chief Justice John Jay negotiated Jay’s
Treaty, which required Britain to
– Pay damages for ships they had
seized from the U.S.
– Vacate their forts in the
Northwest Territory
• The treaty was unpopular in the U.S.
because many thought the British
should have been punished more
harshly.
• In Pickney’s Treaty, the U.S. settled
boundary disputes with Spain over
Spanish Florida.
• This treaty opened the frontier to
further settlement.
The United States Faces Challenges at Home
The Whiskey
Rebellion
Northwest
Conflict
• 1794: Farmers
objected to
Hamilton’s tax on
whiskey.
• Americans fought
Native Americans
in the Northwest
Territory
• They attacked tax
collectors and
burned barns of
those who told
where whiskey was
stilled.
• 1794: General
Anthony Wayne
defeated Native
Americans at the
Battle of Fallen
Timbers.
• Washington
responded quickly,
making it clear that
rebellion was not
tolerated.
• The Treaty of
Greenville then
claimed most of
the Indian land
in the territory.
President Adams
• John Adams
wanted better
relations with
France.
• Adams sent three
diplomats, but
French officials
demanded bribes
and a loan.
• Outrage over this
allowed Congress
to pass laws
protecting against
foreign enemies
and domestic
dissent.
Jefferson’s Presidency
• 1800: first election that changed the party in power
Key Election • The tied election between Jefferson and Burr led to the
Facts
12th Amendment, which set up separate ballots for
president and vice president
Inaugural
Address
Supreme
Court
Grows
Stronger
• Jefferson’s presidency was to be guided by two principles:
– Reducing taxes passed under Hamilton’s plan
– Reducing the size and influence of the federal
government
• Jefferson’s March 1801 inauguration date gave Federalists
time to create several new judgeships.
• Adams worked late into the night appointing Federalists.
• Secretary of State James Madison refused to deliver a
commission to one of the “midnight judges.”
• In Marbury v. Madison, the Supreme Court ruled that the
Constitution couldn’t make Madison deliver it.
• This crucial decision established the Supreme Court’s right
to declare laws unconstitutional.
The Louisiana Purchase
•
One of Jefferson’s major achievements was the purchase of the
Louisiana Territory from France, known as the Louisiana
Purchase.
•
The purchase of new territory raised complicated questions for
Jefferson.
– He was a strict constructionist and followed the Constitution literally.
– The Constitution didn’t give him the authority to purchase new land.
•
Jefferson finally decided that the right to purchase territory was
implicit in the constitutional power to make treaties.
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Once the purchase was approved, Jefferson sent out expeditions,
including the Lewis and Clark expedition.
•
The Lewis and Clark expedition reached the Pacific Ocean and
mapped and surveyed much territory along the way.
The War of 1812
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Americans were happy about the Louisiana Purchase and
reelected Jefferson by a landslide in 1804.
In 1803 the Napoleonic Wars broke out between France
and Great Britain.
The U.S. was involved, as both French and British warships
stopped American merchant ships, and the British began
seizing and drafting Americans at sea.
Americans were angered by the British seizures and also
when they discovered the British were helping Native
Americans against the settlers in the Northwest Territory.
A group of young members of Congress known as the War
Hawks called for war against the British to protect
American interests.
The War of 1812: Causes and Effects
• The War of 1812 was the second war between the British and
Americans in North America. It ranged from Canada in the north to
Louisiana in the south.
• In the final battle, Americans won a decisive victory when General
Andrew Jackson led American troops against a large British force in
New Orleans.
• Unfortunately, while Jackson fought at New Orleans, a peace treaty had
already been signed. Slow communications prevented Jackson from
receiving the message.
Causes
• British impressment of American
sailors
• International conflicts over
commerce
• British military aid to Native
Americans on the Northwest
Territory frontier
Effects
• Foreign respect for the U.S.
• National pride
• Increase in American
manufacturing
• Less Native American resistance
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