Download Unit 6-Old Regime & European Involvement in the Americas

Unit 6-Old
Regime &
European
Involvement in
the Americas
Part 1 Major Features of Life in the Old
Regime and the Aristocracy Reading
Assignment pg. 482-488.
 ---*What
is the Old Regime?---
 Term
used to describe social, political, &
economical relationships that were common in
Europe before the French Revolution
 *Europe
was based on these social
characteristics:
 aristocratic
elites possessing a wide variety of
inherited legal privileges
 established churches intimately related to the
state and the aristocracy.
 urban labor force usually organized into guilds=
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Ppl w/ similar occupations & form work associations
 rural
peasantry subject to high taxes and feudal
dues= what a peasant owes their local lord (money, labor, crops)
 Maintenance
of Tradition
 Nobles
asserted what they considered their
ancient rights against the intrusion of the
expanding monarchial bureaucracies.
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Nobles trying to get power back, resist absolute
monarchy
 The
peasants, through petitions, and revolts
called for the revival or the maintenance of
the customary manorial rights that allowed
them access to particular lands, courts, or
grievance procedures.
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Peasants try to weaken lord’s power
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Hierarchy and Privilege
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1. In several cities there were sumptuary laws that
regulated one class
or
occupation from wearing _similar___ clothes like that
of their social superiors–
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purple= monarch;
red, blue, gold = nobility
B. Rights
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Rank and degree that had existed since the Middle Ages
became more rigid during the 1700’s. Aristocrats want to
make it harder to become a noble.
1. These were not what Americans regard as
individual rights.
2. *A person enjoyed such rights and privileges as
were guaranteed to the particular _community_ or
groups of which he or she was a part
3. What is an example of a community in the 1700’s?
village, city, church, guild, university, parish
 The
Aristocracy (Nobility)
 A. *represented _one_ to five percent of
the population of any given country
 B. In most countries, the nobility had their
own separate house in the
parliaments, estates, or diets. For example,
in England the House of _Lords__
 1. in Hungary and Poland only nobles had
any kind of representation
 Land provided the aristocracy with their
largest source of income. How?
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Charging rent, agriculture
 Manual
labor was considered beneath
most nobles
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Varieties of Aristocratic Privilege Across Europe
A. British Nobility (England, Scotland, Wales=part of U.K.)
Ireland was also part of the U.K. at this time period but has
never been part of Britain.
1. smallest, wealthiest, most socially responsible aristocracy of
all of Europe. (kinder to peasants)
2. consisted of four hundred families.
3. eldest male members of each noble family sat in the House
of Lords— House of Lords is greater than House of Commons
4. estates of British Nobility ranged from a few thousand to
fifty thousand acres.
5. received rent from the land they owned.
6. only the oldest son inherited the title (called a “peerage”)
that gave them the right to sit in the House of Lords.
levied and paid taxes (nobility had to pay taxes too)
few more legal privileges than peasants, but immense political
power— veto power (HoL > HoC)
 French
Nobility
 400,000 nobles were divided into two
main groups
 *“nobles
of the sword” whose nobility was
derived from military service
 *“nobles of the robe” who had received their
title by serving in the royal bureaucracy
(government) or by having purchased them.
 The nobles were also divided between those
who held office or favor with the royal court at
Versailles and those who did not.
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By the late 1780s, appointments tended to go to
nobles already established to court circles.
Well connected nobles were rich, however, the
horbereaux (don’t live in major cities), or
provincial nobles, were little better off than
wealthy peasants.
 All
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French nobility:
were exempt from paying __many__ _taxes__.
*rarely paid the vingtieme, or _income_ tax, in full.
were not liable for the royal corvees or forced
labor on public land which fell on the peasants.
could collect feudal dues from their tenants
enjoyed exclusive hunting and fishing privileges.
_Game_ warden:
 Someone
who was hired to make sure nobody
who wasn’t nobility/monarch was hunting
 All
aristocrats/nobles are lords, but not all lords
are aristocrats/nobles
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Eastern European Nobilities
 Polish Nobles (szlachta)
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Austria and Hungary
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degrees of exemption from taxation
held broad judicial powers over the peasants through
manorial courts
Prussia (Junker)
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exempt from paying taxes
until 1768 had the right of life and death over serfs
Frederick the Great (Frederick II) strengthened the position of
the Junker nobles
nobles had extensive judicial authority over the serfs
Russia (Boyar)
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Czar Peter the Great linked state service and social status
with the Table of Ranks
*In the Charter of Nobility Catherine the Great sought to
legally define the rights of the nobles
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*nobles could transmit status to a nobleman’s wife and children
*judicial protection of nobles rights and property
*power over the serfs
*exemption from personal taxes
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*Aristocratic Resurgence
 This was the __nobility’s___ reaction to the threat to
their __social___ position and privileges that they felt
from the expanding power of the _monarchy_____.
 *This aristocratic resurgence took many forms:
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tried to make it more difficult to become a noble. Why??
want to preserve their exclusiveness
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pushed to reserve appointments to the officer corps of
the armies, senior post in bureaucracies, etc.
 sought to use the authority of existing aristocratically
controlled institutions against the power of the
monarchies. For example the British parliament__ and
the French __parlement____ or _Estates__ _General___.
 tried to gain further exemption from taxation.
 tried to collect higher rents or long forgotten feudal dues
from the peasantry.
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Part 2 The Land and Its Tillers Reading
Assignment pg 485-488
 ---*Land
was the economic basis of eighteenth
century and foundation of power of the nobility.
 Peasants and Serfs
 Free peasants existed in France and England.
a
small amount of serfs lived in Eastern France.
 Serfs
existed in Germany, Austria, Prussia,
Poland, and Russia.
 What is the difference between a serf and
peasant?
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serfs are bound to the land
 The power of the landlord increased as one
moved across Europe from west to east.
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Peasants Around Europe
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Britain
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in Britain all lords and tenants had the right of English citizens but the local
courts were controlled by the nobles (judges were nobles)
serfs and peasants paid most all of the taxes everywhere in Europe except
for Great Britain
France
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*Nearly all French peasants were subject to feudal dues called banalities,
(French Feudal dues) including rent & crops
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Prussia and Austria
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lords exercised almost complete control over serfs
could punish their serfs
Russia
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the serfs day to day conditions were worse in Russia compared to the rest of
Europe
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wealth in Russia was measured by the number of serfs not the acreage of land
lords (Boyars) could demand as many as six days a week of labor
could punish their serfs and exile them to Siberia
serfs had no legal recourse
almost slavery— can’t be bought, sold, or traded
Peasant Rebellions ---SKIP--
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payment to use the lords mill and bake bread in his oven.
king and/or lord could require a certain number of days of forced labor (royal corvee
for the king and corvee for the lord)
Pugachev’s rebellion in Russia (1773-1775):
Revolts in England:
c. England’s Game Laws: ---SKIP---
Part 3 *The Revolution in Agriculture
(__Agricultural_ _Revolution__)
Reading Assignment pg.493-497
 Peasants
Tried to Sustain the Local __food___
Supply.
 A. Failure of the harvest meant not only
hardship, but death from either
outright_starvation__ or malnutrition
 B. Poor harvest also played havoc with prices.
1. Even small increases in the cost of food could
exert heavy pressure on peasant or artisan
families= lower class in the towns
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Bread was the main source of food for the
lower classes
1. *bread prices steadily rose
2. this benefited the nobility and wealthier
peasants who had excess grain to sell
3. this extra cash income for the landlords
allowed them to try new innovations in
agriculture that became know as the
__Agricultural______ Revolution. This led to
greater life expectancies and a population
boost.
 a. landlords commercialized agriculture and
thereby challenged the traditional way of
production
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New Crops and Methods in Britain
A. English landlords provided the best example of
eighteenth century agriculture methods.
1. began to drain some watery areas as the Dutch had
done
2. Jethro Tull (1674-1741)
a. encouraged the use of iron plow. Why is this better
than wooden plow?
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Digs deeper into the soil, more nutrients
b. invented seed drill instead of casting seeds by hand
 3. Charles “Turnip” Townsend (1674-1738)
 a. crop rotation using wheat, turnips, barley and clover
i. clover field used for livestock and to restore nutrients to the
soil. In the end both animals and people had more
food=more life expectancy=population boost
4. Robert Bakewell --SKIP- a. pioneered new methods of animal breeding that led to more food.
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. Enclosure movement:
areas in-between farming fields/strips
become farming land (turns it into one big field)
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Some peasants get kicked off the land
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C. *One of the most important foods introduced
from the New World to Europe was
the _potato_____. Although corn was very
important, potatoes allowed for a more
certain food supply. For example, droughts do
not affect potatoes as much. = pop. boost.
Part 4 The Industrial Revolution of the 18th
Century Reading Assignment pg. 497-504
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--------First Industrial Revolution or Industrial Revolution of the 1700’s---------------------
The Industrial Revolution in England (Great Britain)
A. 1700’s
Industrialization= mass production of goods
demanded a new means of production= something you use to
make something else
invention of new machinery
establishment of factories
demanded new kinds of skills
demanded a new discipline in work
demanded a large labor force including children
gave humans greater control over the forces of nature—example:
dams form backwater, water goes down headrace, and
powered the water wheels that ran the first factories.
caused new and unanticipated problems with the environment
SKIP
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A Revolution in Consumption
increasing demand for goods sparked the ingenuity of designers and
inventors
social factors established markets for consumer goods
people came to have more disposable income
improvements in agriculture
people became persuaded that they needed or wanted new consumer
goods
Josiah Wedgwood (1730-1795)
used advertising
opened showrooms
had salespeople traveling with samples and catalogs
fashion publications
made society aware of new styles
clothing could be copied
changes in consumption of food and drink
new kinds of dishware
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Industrial Leadership of Great Britain – Eighteenth Century Origins
*Factors that allowed Britain to lead in the Industrial Revolution
*London largest city in Europe
leader in fashion and taste
trade exposed them to new goods
newspapers allowed advertising
*Britain was the largest free trade area in Europe. free trade= little or
no control in trade
good roads and waterways without internal tolls or trade barriers
rich deposits of coal and iron ore
sound banking and public credit
taxation was fair
*Expanding Atlantic economy
colonial empire
position in Latin America— in Carribean
African slave trade
all of these provided a growing market for manufactured goods
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*Agriculture
new methods of farming
more crops = lower food prices
more money to buy manufactured goods
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*Government
few controls
encouraged personal initiative
encouraged technical change
allowed a free market=natural forces of supply
and demand dictate the economy.
6. *Large class of hired agricultural laborers
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New Methods of Textile Production
*Textile production pioneered the Industrial Revolution
Earliest industrial change took place in the countryside
cottage industry = 1. an agent would take wool to a peasants home
2. peasant would spin the wool into_THREAD__
domestic system = 3. agent would return to take thread to another
_PEASANT’S__ home
4. this peasant would use the hand loom to make cloth/fabric
putting out system = 5. putting out sys., cottage indus., domestic sys., & are all
synonyms
demand soon out grew supply (pop. increase because of Ag. Revolution)
Invention of new machines—these new machines would lead to factory
development.
John Kay (1730’s) = flying shuttle – used for weaving
need for more thread. leads to spinning jenny.
James Hargreaves (1765) = spinning jenny – spun multiple spindles of thread
a. simple, inexpensive, hand operated
Richard Arkwright’s (1769) = water frame – *production of cotton fabric
a. required specialized mills and many workers. Factory numbers explode.
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--SKIP—
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Edmund Cartwright (1780’s)=power loom—machine weaving—much faster
a. saved labor cost
5. Samuel Crompton—1790=spinning mule
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a. required more power
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C. Consequences
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1. cotton goods became much cheaper—
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a. poor could now afford linen/cloth/fabric/clothes
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2. wages of weavers rose
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3. some agricultural laborers became weavers
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. poor working conditions in factories
of the overall population, few people worked in them— 12-16 HRS/DAY
child labor grew
a. abandoned kids - orphans
The Problem of Energy
--SKIP-Shortage of wood
used for heat, transportation, processed into charcoal for iron ore furnaces, building, etc.
coal used for heating
a. mines flood – need for mechanical pumps—introduction of steam engine
The Steam Engine= – MOST IMPORTANT INVENTION OF IR
A. Thomas Savery 1698
Thomas Newcomen – first practical steam engine invented
James Watt (1760’s) – improved steam engine
--SKIP-Matthew Boulton – toy and button manufacturer
John Wilkinson – cannon manufacturer
helped Watt develop metal cylinders for steam engine
Iron Production
Reasons for increase
1. coke- product of coal- used as fuel instead of decreasing wood supply
*2. steam engine provided hot enough blast --SKIP-3. availability increased demand
Henry Cort – invented a new process for melting and stirring molten ore
puddling process =
produced a better product
lowered cost
demand continued to grow for iron
Part 5 The Growth of Cities Reading
Assignments pg. 504-510
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--SKIP--During the 1700’s cities grew tremendously
A. Many of these cities were capitals and ports. Why?
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Urban Classes
A. The urban rich was visibly separated from
the urban poor
B. Aristocrats lived in well furnished homes.
C. Modern sanitary facilities were unknown,
animals wondered the street, and pure
water was rare.— caused cholera
Cities were described as beautiful and ugly in the
same sentence.
 Upper
Classes
 small group of nobles
 large merchants
 large bankers
 financiers
 clergy
 government officials
 The upper classes controlled the political
and economic affairs of the town
 governed the city through the oligarchy
of a city council. What is an oligarchy?
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Small elite group of people rule
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The Middle Class
merchants
trades people
bankers
professional people= lawyers, teachers, doctors
their world was one in which earnings and _savings___ of
money enabled rapid social mobility and change in
lifestyle
they portrayed the nobility as idle and themselves as
willing to put their capital and energy to work
many were owners of the factories and of wholesale and
retail businesses
many began to imitate the lifestyle of the _nobility_ by
purchasing landed estates in the countryside.
 The tensions arose between the nobles and the middle
class during the 18th century normally involved issues of
power sharing in the government.
 The middle class not only felt threatened by the nobility
but by the lower classes that could start a riot both
damaging to property and life.
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Artisans (lower classes)— largest group in city
1. shopkeepers
2. wage earners
3. butchers and _fishmongers__.
4. *They were members of the guilds:
a. guilds were not as politically powerful as
they were in Medieval Europe. *Guilds
remained strong in central Europe but not in W.
Europe.
b. tried to preserve the jobs and skills of its
members
c. tried to limit membership
d. resisted change: for example, guilds hated
the factories!
SKIP
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i. apprentice
ii. journeymen
iii. master
Urban Riot
A. If Artisans felt they were being taken advantage of
they often rioted.
B. These Riots were often due to the price of bread
1. riots help restrain the greed of merchants
C. From 1750 on, urban riots were increasingly about
political means
1. many were often encouraged by the nobles who
were fighting the monarchs
a. for example, the aristocratic Parliament in
_________ encouraged crowd action
 *Working
Women
 A. single largest field was domestic
service—one example cottage industry
 B. most European people in the 1700’s
assumed they worked to supplement their
husband’s income
 C. most women did not work in the new
technologies of farming,
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transportation, and manufacturing
 D. most women’s work was associated
with work in the home will change
Part 6 The Jews in the Eighteenth Century
Reading Assignment pg. 510
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Jews were discriminated against. Why?
 *Most European Jews lived in the East of Europe
(Poland, Lithuania, Ukraine)
 Throughout Europe Jews did not enjoy the rights
privileges other subjects had.
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separate section of town where minorities are
forced to live
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had to live in the Ghetto. *What is a Ghetto?
only in England could they mix in the mainstream of society,
b/c of O. Cromwell
in Spain they were completely expelled
most lived in poverty
laws kept them socially inferior to their Christian neighbors
could not work in many occupations—
a. # 1,3,4,5,6, are all example of Anti-Semitism=
prejudice against a person or group of people
Part 7 Periods of European Overseas
Empires Reading Assignment pg. 516517
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*Four Periods of European Overseas Empire
A.* Exploration, initial settlement, and conquest of the New World.
B. * Mercantile Empire (Colonial Trade rivalries)
1. colonial rivalries among Spain, France, and Great Britain
a. led to creation of large navies
b. major wars: King Georges War & French and _Indian___ War
2. led to slave labor
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a forced migration
b. cheap labor
3. Spain, France, and Britain eventually lost most of its colonies in the N.W.
C. *Europeans begin to rule indigenous people of Africa and Asia
(controlled by Europe)
D. *Decolonization of people who had previously lived under European
rule—mainly after WW II (give back land)
II. *European countries were able to dominate people around the
world because of naval _power____ and _gun-power___.
Part 8 Mercantile Empires Reading Assignment
pg. 517-519
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Mercantile empires
A. Meant to bring a profit rather than supply areas for settlement
B. The major mercantile rivals in the new world were Spain,
England, and France.
II.
*What is mercantilism? This is one example of a command economy=
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Gov’t has complete control over trade/business, etc.
*A. Command Economy____is a system whereby governments heavily
regulated foreign trade and _commerce___ in hope of increasing national
wealth and a favorable balance of trade and acquiring gold and silver
bullion
nation was wealthy if it amassed more bullion than its rivals.
believed that in order to grow economically, you did so at the direct expense
of another _nation_
the home country and its colonies were exclusively to trade with _each_
other (a cause of Am. Rev.)
colonists of different countries wanted to trade with each other
they did trade with each other illegally—smuggling
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*home country was to _control____ and administer the colonies.
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**Page. 518: Test Ques. on mercantilism and modest economic growth.
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. French-British Rivalry
A. Colonists in North America quarreled with
each other over:
1. fishing rights
2. fur trade
3. alliances with Native Americans
B. *Major source of rivalry lay in the _west___
Indies or the __Carribean______
1. very profitable crops such as
a. tobacco
b. cotton
c. coffee
d. most importantly _sugar__
i. slave labor made these crops very
profitable
ii. products were very desired in Europe
 Part
9 African Slavery in the New World
Refer to Question and Answer Sheet;
Reading Assignment pg. 523-532
 worksheet
Part 10 Mid Eighteenth Century Wars Reading
Assignment pg. 532-535
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The War of Jenkins’s Ear (1739-1748) (Spanish-English Commercial Conflict)
A. West Indies was a hotbed of trade rivalry and illegal smuggling
B. *Spain began to search and maintain coastal patrols and search
English vessels for contraband.
1. English captain Robert Jenkins’s ear was severed in a fight with the
Spanish. (1731) Went to Parliament in 1738 with his ear.
2. English P.M. Robert Walpole declared war on Spain (1739)
II.
War of Austrian Succession (1740-1748) King George’s War in North
America
A. Frederick II (King of Prussia), seized the Austrian province of
*Silesia=this upset the balance of power in Europe. Shattered the
_Pragmatic__ Sanction.
1. Maria Theresa was the Queen of Austria and Habsburg lands at the time
--SKIP-B. Could have started a series of revolts in Habsburg ruled lands
1. Promised Hungarian nobility local autonomy to keep them happy
2. Austria and Maria Theresa never regained _Silesia__.
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*France draws Great Britain into war
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1. King Louis XV of France supported Prussian
aggression against Austria
a. bad decision by Louis XV, why?
i. help create a new powerful state called
Germany
ii. Germany could, and did later, attack France
iii. Britain sided with Austria
iv. France did not have the strength to fight a
colonial war and a conflict in Europe
2. France sided with Spain in its conflict with
England
D. War ended in a stalemate with the *1748
Treaty of Aix-la-Chapelle in which Prussia
__retained____ Silesia.
*Maria Theresa’s great accomplishment was
the_retention__ of the Hapsburg Empire as a major
political power.
 Diplomatic
Revolution of 1756
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A. George II, King of Britain, and Elector of
Hanover in Germany
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1. George II thought the French might
attack Hanover (Hesse)
 a. *Britain signed the Convention of
Westminster with Prussia
 1. defensive alliance aimed at preventing the
entry of foreign (French) troops into the
German states.
 b. Britain had been an ally of _Austria_, but
now were an ally of Prussia
 c. France now allied itself with its old enemy
Austria
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. The Origins of the American Revolution
Seven Years’ War (1756-1763) = French & Indian War
Frederick II (Frederick the Great) of Prussia invades Saxony
(an HRE state) (1756)
France, Austria, & Saxony form alliance against
Prussia(1757)
Sweden, Russia, & small German states join this alliance
Two factors save Prussia
Britain furnishes financial aide to Prussia_
*William Pitt the Elder – British Secretary of State & future
PM
1. sees conflict as a way to divert French resources &
attention from colonies
2. sends 40,000 troops against France in Canada
France unable to protect holdings –SKIP-
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military administration was corrupt
military & political command divided in Canada
France could not provide provisions
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1759 – Battle: Plains of Abraham – Saint Lawrence
River at Quebec City, British General Wolfe
defeats French Lt. General Montcalm. {See painting pg.
11.}
a. French Empire in Canada ended
b. *Treaty of Paris (1763) ended war between England &
France over control of North America
i. Britain receives all of Canada, Ohio River Valley,
& eastern half of Mississippi River Valley
--skip-- ii. ended Fr. ambitions of an empire in India. Brit.
controls India
2. Tsar Peter III of Russia makes peace with Prussia (1762)
1. eliminates one enemy of Prussia
c. Treaty of Hubertusburg (1763) – ends war in Europe
1. little change in holdings in Europe—restored prewar
status in Europe.
d. financial burdens of the wars had effect on all countries
William Pitt
the Elder
A scene from
the War of
Jenkins’s Ear
Sir Benjamin West’s
famous painting: The
Death of Wolfe
Wolfe died at the
Battle of the Plains of
Abraham.
SKIP
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Part 11 The American Revolution and Europe Reading Assignment pg. 535-541
Resistance to the Imperial Search for Revenue
*Two problems faced British government
cost of empire
ability to organize vast new territory in North America
Search for Revenue & Resistance
Sugar Act (1764) =
*Stamp Act (1765) =
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*What was the purpose of the Stamp Act?
`
British considered legal since passed by Parliament & money was to be spent in
colonies
Colonists considered it illegal since not represented in Parliament and not passed by
their assemblies—“Taxation without representation”
Stamp Act Congress (1765) = met in colonies to protest England
Sons of Liberty =
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colonists refused to import British goods
Stamp Act repealed (1766)
*Declaratory Act = Parliament states it has power to legislate colonies
Parliament vs. Colonial legislation
feeling of separation
Townshend Acts (1767) =
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SKIP
a. 1768-U.K. sends troops to Boston to protect customs agents collecting Townshend duties.
Boston Massacre (1770) =
Townshend Act repealed, except tax on tea (1770)
Tea Act of 1773 =
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Boston Tea Party =
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9. *Intolerable Acts (Coercive Acts)- 1774
closed the port of Boston
reorganized gov’t of Massachusetts
allowed troops to be quartered in private homes
removed trial of royal customs officials to England
First Continental Congress (1774) – Philadelphia
hoped to persuade Parliament to restore self-gov’t to colonies and boycotted Eng. goods
Battle of Lexington & Concord (1775):
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colonists later defeated at Bunker Hill in Boston—British occupy Boston temporally.
Independence
---Who was the British King during the Amer. Revolution--?
Second Continental Congress (1775)—Philadelphia:
colonial army and navy organized
opened American ports to trade of all nations
John Hancock – president
2. George Washington – commander in chief of colonial army.
Declaration of Independence
Thomas Jefferson –
purpose? =
SKIP
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Thomas Paine (1775)
*Common Sense =
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3. Loyalist vs. Patriots
Loyalists = wealthy moderates
Patriots = wealthy farmers & artisans
Whigs=Political party in Britain. Some Whigs wanted to give
America its’ Independence.
Foreign involvement
French =
1. agreed to help America after the victory at the Battle of
Saratoga, N.Y.
2. Marquis de Lafayette =
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Spanish & Dutch = (1779)
Russia =
League of Armed Neutrality =
SKIP
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d. was evident Amer. would win after Cornwallis’s defeat at
Yorktown
Treaty of Paris 1783
recognized independence
ceded all territory
Framing the Constitution
Second Continental Congress
Articles of Confederation – 1777
describe =
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2.
Constitution Convention of 1787
Philadelphia
U.S. Constitution
strengths over Articles =
Ratification
Anti-federalist =
Federalists =
SKIP
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Bill of Rights – 1789
1.
“classical liberalism” =
liberties –
equalities –
political
economic
Where do we get our American Political Ideas
English Revolution of 1688 – Glorious Revolution
English Bill of Rights – guaranteed civil liberties of the English privileged
classes
colonists felt King George III and Par. was depriving them of their liberties
2. Enlightenment Idea – a better world was possible
Commonwealthmen – British political writers
Cato’s Letters – criticized Parliament, gov’t was corrupt
3. John Locke—Enlightenment thinker who greatly influenced the
Founding
Fathers and the American Revolution.
4. Why would it impact Europe? How did it impact Europe?
Boston Tea Party
George III
King of the
U.K.
Surrender at Yorktown: Washington’s
accepts the sword of Cornwallis.
Cornwallis sent a subordinate
to relinquish his sword.
George
Washington
Marquis de
Lafayette
Battle of Yorktown
These painting are of the
same event. Which one is
most accurate?
Emanuel Leutze’s Crossing the
Delaware.
Mort Kunstle’s Washington’s
Crossing.
Independence
Hall, Philadelphia
Battle of Bunker Hill