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Modern Europe I
HIS-106
Unit 10 - The French Revolution
What is a Revolution?
A “revolution” can be broken down into four
requirements:
An overthrow of the existing government but not just a simple
coup d’etat
The placement of a new governmental system to replace the
old
The participants of the revolution must be “home grown” and
not be pushed by an outside group
It occurs in the modern period as most of the ideas of
“revolution” come out of the Enlightenment of the 17th and
18th centuries
Importance of the French Revolution
There are three things that made the Revolution
important:
What occurred in France becomes a model for future
revolutions in Europe even up to modern day
It changed the political map of Europe for the rest of the
modern period
It brought the people into politics
Before, politics had been limited to the upper classes, the nobility, and
the clergy
Afterwards, the masses were able to participate in government
What Makes France So Special?
In the 18th century, France was the most advanced and
powerful country in Europe
It was one of the dominant military powers, rivaled only
by Britain
France helped the Americans win their independence from the
British
It was the most populous country in Europe
The population of France was around 24 million which was
even larger than Russia before the divisions of Poland
Paris was only rivaled by London in size
What Makes France So Special?
France was also the center of the Enlightenment and the
radical ideas of the time
French culture also dominated Europe
This was ironic since it was also one of the most oppressed
countries in Europe when it came to freedom of speech
The philosophes set down the modern political and social
theories that sparked many of the revolutions
French became the “official” language of many of the courts of
the time
When the revolution breaks out in France, it was going to
have a major impact on Europe, for good or for bad
France Before the Revolution
The Ancien Régime
The ruling dynasties were the Valois and Bourbon (1328-1792)
It was a period of aristocratic privilege similar to the old feudal
system of the Middle Ages
Starting in the 18th century, tensions arose among the
various classes
Aristocrats resented the freedoms the monarchs had allowed
the middle class
Middle class resented a society of privilege that was outmoded
Peasants resented the increasing demands of the central
government
Causes of the French Revolution
Four categories of causes of the French Revolution
Intellectual Causes
Mainly based on the influence of Enlightenment ideas
Liberal ideals
“Rights of Man” - Life, liberty, and property
Self-Determination - A government “by the people”
Equality under the law
End to Feudalism and State-Controlled Economy
American Revolution also played a role
Creation of a Free Republic
Many French fought in the American Revolution
The Three
Estates
The Three Estates
Social causes of the Revolution are based on the archaic
three estate system
Power was in the hands of the first two estates
First Estate (premier état) - The Church
Second Estate (deuxieme état) - The Nobility
Third Estate (tiers état) – Everybody else
Made up only around 5% of the population
Controlled most of the wealth and political power
Third Estate paid most of the taxes
Did not enjoy any political power even though its wealth and
numbers were growing
The Three Estates
First Estate - Clergy
Made up 1% of the population (~100,000)
Owned 10% of the land in France
Exempt from property taxes
This estate collected a tithe, a 10% annual tax
Second Estate - Nobility
Made up around 2.5% of the population (~400,000)
Owned 20% of the land
"Noblesse d'Épée" - ("Nobility of the Sword“) – Old Nobility
50,000 new nobles created between 1700 and 1789
"Noblesse de Robe" - ("Nobility of the Robe“) – New Nobility
The Three Estates
Third Estate – Everybody else
Made up approximately 97% of the population
Mainly peasants who paid most of the taxes
Owed obligations to landlord, church, and state
Direct and indirect taxation a heavy burden
The corvée
Social boundaries between noble and non-noble illdefined
Most noble wealth was proprietary (tied to land)
Influx of new wealth from banking, shipping, slave trade, and
mining
Bourgeoisie identified with the nobility, not the common
people
Louis XVI
(1774-1792)
Louis XVI (1774-1792)
The political cause centered around the reign of Louis
XVI
Louis XVI came to the throne at the age of 19
He had no interest in running the government
Like his grandfather, he was more concerned about hunting
On July 14, 1789, he put in his hunting journal only one word:
“rien” (“nothing”)
Hired Jean-Frédéric Phélypeaux, Count of Maurepas, to
be his chief advisor
Suggested the revival in the use of the parlements
These had been abolished during the reign of Louis XV
Louis thought this would increase his popularity with the nobility
Louis XVI (1774-1792)
In France, there were 13 parlements
The most powerful of the parlements was the one in Paris
The parlements did not write legislation
Instead, they were only required to ratify laws and take care of
some administrative tasks
The king always had the right to veto any act of parlement
Here was where the king would request a lit de justice to have
royal edicts passed
For a short period of time during the reign of Louis XV,
the parlements were given the right to veto a king’s act
As their members came from the Second Estate, they were
unwilling to bring about any reforms that would threaten their
power
Louis XVI (1774-1792)
Louis also did not show much interest in producing an
heir to the throne
Married Marie Antoinette in 1700 at age 15
However, the marriage was not consummated until seven years
later
May have been due to immaturity, impotence, or may have had
a condition known as phimosis
Marie Antoinette was not very popular
She dispensed patronage among her friends
In 1783, the Hameau de la Reine ("The Queen's hamlet") was
built for her by Louis XVI
In 1785, there was the Diamond Necklace Affair
Marie Antoinette
(1755-1793)
Economic Causes of the Revolution
Major cause of the Revolution: Economics
Played a role both in the long and short term
By 1780s, French economy was failing
Massive national debt
Accumulated during the reigns of Louis XIV and Louis XV
Due to the number of wars
Old tax system could not pay off the debt
The debt was viewed not as the country’s debt but the king’s
By 1764, the national debt was up to 2.3 billion
Worth ~ $15.5 billion in 2010 currency
Interest on these loans was costing 60% of the annual budget
Economic Causes of the Revolution
Many countries in Europe were also in debt
Wartime taxes
Due to wars and economic depressions in the mid-1760s
Their tax systems were more efficient
Tried to extend wartime taxes to help pay these debts
Parlements opposed them
Focused instead on paying the interest rather than principle
Antiquated tax system
Taxes were collected by tax “farmers”
They collected the indirect taxes, such as taille and gabelle (salt
tax)
Able to keep a percentage of the taxes collected
Economic Causes of the Revolution
Only the Third Estate paid all the taxes
Not enough money going into the royal treasury
Taxation tied to social status and varied from region to region
It was mainly paid by the peasantry whose incomes were the
lowest in the country
Yet France was considered one of the wealthiest countries
Attempts to reform taxes
Were attempts to tax nobility
All were opposed by the parlements
This conflict peaked during the reign of Louis XVI
Anne-RobertJacques Turgot
French Finance
Minister
(1774-1776)
Rising Economic Crisis
Louis hired a number of financial ministers to help with
the debt
Anne-Robert-Jacques Turgot
He strongly followed laissez-faire styled economics
Wanted to implement a property tax
Parlements vetoed Turgot’s proposals
Could have saved France?
Jacques Necker
“Old school” economist and mercantilist
Managed financing for the American Revolution
Got loans to pay for the 1.3 billion livre cost
Ended up making the debt much worse
Jacques Necker
French Finance Minister
(1777-1781)
Rising Economic Crisis
Tensions between the central governments and the
provincial parlements slowed reform
Parlements defend nobility’s exemption from paying taxes to pay
for the Seven Years’ War
Charles-Alexandre de Calonne
Was appointed as finance minister in 1783
By August 1786, France had a deficit of 112 million livre
The loans accumulated since 1776 totaled 1.25 billion in debt
At this point, France had no way of paying all of its debts
Calonne realized that minor changes would not help the
government get out of debt
Rising Economic Crisis
Calonne proposed a tax on all the people of France
Calling of the Assemblée des notables
This would include the nobility
General tax on all landowners to replace the taille
Calonne knew he would have problems getting these taxes
through the Parlements
Called an Assemblée des notables instead
If they supported his plan, he would have little difficultly getting
it passed in the Parlements
Assembly of Notables was called on February 22, 1787
There were 144 people in attendance
Included the highest of the nobility, church, and bourgeoisie
Political cartoon of the Assembly of Notables
“My dear creatures, I have assembled you here to deliberate on
the sauce in which you will be served”
Rising Economic Crisis
Aristocrats used the financial emergency to extract
constitutional reforms
Insisted that any new tax scheme be approved by the
Estates-General
They refused to pass anything resembling a general tax
On April 8, 1787, Louis XVI fired Calonne
Were willing to make some radical changes
This included the implementation of a land tax
Replaced with Etienne Charles Lomenie de Brienne
Brienne was also unsuccessful at getting the tax laws
passed
Rising Economic Crisis
Brienne turned to the clergy for help
Brienne realized that there was nothing else he could do
Requested a large payment from them to help out the
country’s finances
They refused
Nothing would get passed without calling the Estates General
In August 1788, the financial crisis had worsened
On August 8, he announced that the Estates General would
meet in May 1789
On August 16, the government stops repaying loans
Qu'est ce que le Tiers
Etat?
What is the Third Estate?
By Abbé Sieyès
(January 1789)
Calling of the Estates General
Estates-General had not been called since 1614
The Three Estates elected delegates
The delegates of the Third Estate represented the
outlook of the elite
Drew up the cahiers et doléances (list of grievances)
25 percent lawyers, 43 percent government officials
Strong sense of common grievance and common purpose
Should the estates vote by estate or by individual?
Parlement of Paris stated that each of the estates would have
only one vote each
Third Estate wanted double representation in the Estates
Calling of the Estates General
Double representation
On December 27, 1788, Louis allowed for double
representation for the Third Estate
What is the Third Estate? (January 1789)
Pamphlet written by Abbé Sieyès
Stated that the true desire of the Third Estate was to have true
political power and have equal power to the first two estates
combined
He also stated that the votes should be taken by head, not by
estate
This sparked further debates throughout France
Lambasted the Second Estate as being useless without the
Third Estate
Meeting of the Estates General (May 5, 1789)
The Estates General
The delegates for the Estates General met at Versailles on
May 2, 1789
First two estates were greeted by Louis in the Hall of Mirrors
Third Estate was forced to wait until four hours later to meet
the king in a different part of the palace
The Estates General opened on May 5
The three estates were to be seated in different chambers
The Third Estate refused to be segregated
Requested that all three estates sit in the same chamber
King announced that the voting would be by estate with each
having one vote
Third Estate refused to pass any measures
The Estates General
On May 28th, the Third Estate began meeting on its own
Abbé Sieyès also told the Commons that they should
invite members of the other two estates to join them
They now called themselves the Communes (“Commons”)
They were hoping to attract the parish priests as many of them
were poor
A number of clergy did join them
Commons wanted to create a new legislative body
This was because more than one estate was in attendance
Abbé Sieyès stated that this body represented 98% of the
country
It should start work immediately on the restoration of France
Abbé EmmanuelJoseph Sieyès
(1748-1836)
The National Assembly
Creation of the National Assembly
Assembly continued to invited members of the other two
estates to join
Created by vote on June 17, 1789
Passed a measure stating that all taxes could not be collected
unless passed by the National Assembly
By June 19, 1789, over 100 clergy and nobility had joined
Louis planned a séance royale (Royal Session)
The purpose was to try to get the three estates back on track
The location was to be in the Salle des États, the meeting place
of the Assembly
When the National Assembly showed up to the Salle des États
on June 20, 1789, they found the doors locked
The Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789)
The National Assembly
The Assembly moved to a nearby indoor tennis court
Tennis Court Oath (June 20, 1789)
The members in attendance gave the following oath:
“We swear never to separate ourselves from the National
Assembly, and to reassemble wherever circumstances require,
until the constitution of the realm is drawn up and fixed upon
solid foundations.”
It was passed 576-1 by the members
This was a key action by the National Assembly
They were going to put together a constitution with or
without the king
The Assembly had true power of the country as it represented
the people
The National Assembly
On June 22, 1789, the Assembly found itself locked out of
the tennis court
Louis recalled over 18,000 soldiers to Versailles
The group went on to meet in the church of St. Louis
He would use them disband the Assembly by force if necessary
By June 24, most of the clergy had joined the Assembly
along with 48 nobility
On June 27, Louis ordered all the delegates to join the
Assembly
On July 9, the Assembly renamed itself the National
Constituent Assembly
Riots and looting
in France
(March-May 1789)
Revolution from Below
There were two sides to the revolution
Suffering lower classes
The middle- and upper-classes were bringing about change for
the country via politics
The lower-classes were making changes through riots
They endured increases in the taille, gabelle, and in feudal dues
Hoped that the calling of the Estates General would help ease
their financial burdens
Bread shortages
During the 1780s, weather patterns had a negative impact on
crops
It was a peak period in the “Little Ice Age”
Eruptions in Iceland from 1783-1785
Revolution from Below
These weather patterns led to a decline in crop outputs
Bread was a mainstay of the peasant’s diet
Bad winter in 1787/1788
Followed by severe hailstorm in July 1788
Led to a sharp increase in the price of grain and bread
By 1788, most peasants were spending upwards of 50% of their
income just on bread alone
By 1789, 80% of their income went to bread (highest since
1714)
This led to a severe food crisis throughout France
From 1785 to 1789, the cost of living increased 62%
However, wages only went up 22%
Revolution from Below
No government relief
Economic depression made matters worse
Incomes of many workers declined rapidly
Rise in unemployment
Many peasants stopped paying their feudal dues and taxes
Due to the country’s poor financial status
Some towns attempted to fix the price of bread
Failed to stop the growing famine in many regions
Some moved into the cities but were unable to find work
In the towns and cities, labor revolts broke out in the
spring of 1789
Revolution from Below
Increase in crime and vagrancy
Growing paranoia
Due to so many people out of work and searching for food
Lower-class was positive the king and nobility were going to
shut down the Third Estate
Specifically, they were fearful that the king was going to forcibly
disband the Constituent Assembly
Rumors circulated that Louis was about to stage a coup d’état
Many people and towns began to arm themselves for
protection
Parisian workers (sans-culottes) organized a militia of
volunteers
Storming of the Bastille (July 14, 1789)
Storming of the Bastille
Riots and looting broke out on July 12, 1789
July 14, a mob took weapons from the Hôtel des Invalides
Many were looking for food and for weaponry
The Gardes Françaises (French Guards) stood back and
allowed the looting to occur as they were sympathetic to the
people
They were able to take 28,000 muskets and ten cannons
However, they were not able to secure enough ammunition
The next target was the fortress of the Bastille
There was the belief that the Bastille held 250 barrels (20,000
pounds) of gunpowder
The mob ransacked the prison and took the governor and
guards hostage
“This is how we punish traitors”
Great Fear of 1789
On July 17, 1789, the Revolution spread to the
countryside
The situation there was already tense
The peasants wanted to destroy the manorial system
Increase in vagrants, beggars, and criminals
Convinced that the nobility had employed these people to
terrorize them
Rumors that the king’s armies were on their way
The peasants responded by arming themselves in self-defense
Burned the buildings where the taxes were collected
It escalated to sacking and burning down the manor homes
The nobility was forced to flee the countryside
The Great Fear
of 1789
August Days
On August 4, 1789, the Assembly voted to:
Give up their seigneurial rights and declared an end to serfdom
Declare an end to the tithe, special privileges, and tax privileges
The Declarations of the Rights of Man and Citizen
Issued by the Assembly on August 26, 1789
Based on the ideas of the natural rights of man
Every citizen had the right to “liberty, property, security, and
resistance to oppression”
All citizens were equal in the eyes of the law
“Law is the expression of the general will”
It called for the government by the people
The people were to decide how taxes were to be collected
August Days
The period of all of these changes became known as the
“August Days”
Working on a new government and constitution
Legislation the “August Decrees”
The differing factors in the Assembly made this a difficult task
Conservatives wanted to keep the king as the main authority
of the government with a bicameral legislature
Liberals wanted a unicameral legislative body
This was out of fear that the nobility in the upper house would
give themselves back some of its power
Louis had refused to recognize the Declarations
Women’s March on Versailles (October 5, 1789)
October Days
Women began gathering in Paris in early October 1789
Rumors circulated that the king was hoarding bread at
Versailles
They were specifically demanding bread
The women decided to march on Versailles
Thousands of women had joined the march
Mainly middle-class women
Chanted songs about killing Marie Antoinette
Armed with broomsticks, pitchforks, muskets, and swords
By the time the group reached Versailles, the crowd numbered
over 6,000
Women’s March on Versailles
Louis met with a delegation of the women in the palace
Very early in the morning of October 6th, a large group of
women found an open gate to the palace
He said that he would give what bread was available in the
palace to the women but they did not believe him
They wanted the “Austrian Whore” and rushed to the Queen’s
apartments
They chased the Queen and her entourage into the King’s
apartments
The National Guard was able to stop the mob and get
them out of the palace
The mob outside could not be calmed down until they saw the
royal family
Women’s March on Versailles
There were many shouts of “Le Roi à Paris!”
Louis stated he would move the royal family to Paris
They wanted Louis to see what was taking place there
They were escorted to the city later that afternoon by both
the National Guard and the armed women
They brought along flour found in Versailles as a “goodwill”
gesture
The king was now forced to accept the August Decrees
Mobs affected politics
Louis was now a virtual prisoner of both the crowds and the
Assembly
Painting of the royal family hiding in the king’s chambers
(October 6, 1789)
Economic Changes
The first focus of the Constituent Assembly was to help
stimulate the failing economy
The first step was to deal with the huge debt
The Assembly turned its attention to the church
It refused to forgive the debt
Clergy were seen as part of the feudalistic system
The church owned millions of livre worth of land that the
country could sell off to pay off its debt
The Assembly decided to nationalize church lands
The state would take both the land and its expenses
It would also take over the burden of its charitable work
Economic Changes
On November 2, 1790, the confiscation of church land
began
Assignats
Many of the clergy were very unhappy with this
These printed bonds were created as a form of legal tender
Backed by the value of the church land (~ 400 million livre)
Argued that the church did not own these lands as a whole
Also felt that the state would not take the charitable work as
piously as the church
This policy led to a rise in anti-revolutionary feelings
amongst the clergy
Illustration of the monks and nuns celebrating the end of
ecclesiastical orders (February 16, 1790)
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
Next step was secularizing the church
The first part of this included:
Assembly viewed the church as another “old school” power
base
The end of the tithe (August 4, 1789)
The nationalization of church lands (November 2, 1789)
End to all ecclesiastical orders and monastic vows (February
13, 1790)
State control of all remaining church property (April 19, 1790)
Next was the reorganization of the church
This included putting control of the church in the hands of the
state
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
Create 83 bishops, one for each départements
All church officials must be elected by the people
It also required all clergy to swear an oath to the state
The Constitution passed on July 12, 1790 by a large majority
There was much opposition to it from the clergy
Many were upset at the church being subordinate to the state
Others criticized how it reduced the spiritual authority of the
pope
Civil Constitution of the Clergy
On November 27, 1790, the Assembly ordered all clergy
to take the oath
King approved it on December 26, 1790
Only seven bishops and 54% of parish priests took the oath
Those who refused were known as non-juring priests
The pope never did and repudiated all clergy who took the
oath
Created a huge schism between the Revolution and the
Catholics
Many Catholics in the countryside who followed non-juring
priests began a strong counter-revolutionary movement
There were also attacks against those who refused to conform
to the Constitution
The three estates
“hammering” out a
new constitution
Writing A New Constitution
Writing of a new constitution
Other members began to form political clubs
Became difficult as many of conservatives in the Assembly left
They were fearful that the new constitution was going to be
influenced by the mobs rather than the politicians
Some even left the country and became émigrés
Largest was the Jacobin Club
Started as a moderate political club but soon became infamous
for its radical stances on politics
From October 1789 to September 1791, worked on
restructuring the government
Wanted to decentralize the government by taking the power
out of the king’s hands
Constitution of 1791
Constitution of 1791
The Legislative Assembly was created
King was a constitutional monarch
Had very limited powers
This was a unicameral legislature
Made up of 745 representatives who held two year terms
Only “active” citizens could vote for representatives
These were men over 25 who paid an annual tax equivalent to
three days worth of labor (~ 3 livres) and were literate
While this meant that 4.3 million were eligible to vote, it was
still only half of the male population
Louis XVI riding a pig
Flight to Varennes
Still problems for the Revolution
Louis XVI was especially unhappy
Still hurting financially due to widespread tax evasion
Rising cost of living made the peasants unhappy
The clergy were opposed to the Revolutionary government
Political clubs, like the Jacobins, were pushing for more radical
ideas
Did not want to be limited in his power as king
Was unhappy with the Civil Constitution of the clergy
On June 20, 1791, the royal family attempted to flee
Disguised as servants to a Russian baroness
They made it as far as the town of Varennes, near the Belgium
border
Flight to Varennes
There, Louis was recognized by the local postmaster
One legend has it that Drouet recognized the king because his
likeness was printed on all assignats
They were immediately arrested and forced to return to
Paris five days later
The Constituent Assembly suspended the king’s authority
upon his return to Paris
This event changed the course of the Revolution
The king was now viewed as a traitor
People began discussing the possibility of a republic without a
king instead of a constitutional monarchy
Return of the royal family to Paris (June 25, 1791)
Legislative Assembly
On October 1, 1791, the Legislative Assembly met for the
first time
It was divided into three main groups:
Jacobins – Radicals
Girondins – Republicans
Montagnards (Mountain) – Radical democrats
Assembly made more radical changes to the church
Nonjuring priests would lose their pensions and be declared
“enemies of the patrie”
They also allowed for the marriage of priests
Legislative Assembly
Growing violence
Assembly had to take more radical action in response to the
growing violence in southern France
Due to a growing counter-revolutionary movement of loyal
Catholics in the region
Actions against émigrés
They were accused of fomenting plots against the Revolution
Their lands were confiscated and those on the borders were
arrested
Assembly also required that all members of the royal family to
return to France on the threat of having all of their property
confiscated
French sans-culotte
Turn to Radical Revolution
Radical Revolution (August 1792 - July 1794)
From moderate leaders to radical republicans
Why did the Revolution become radical?
The politicization of the common people, especially in
cities
Newspapers
Political clubs
Greater political awareness heightened by fluctuations in prices
Demands for cheaper bread
Demands for government to do something about inflation
Turn to Radical Revolution
Lack of effective national leadership
Louis XVI remained a weak and vacillating monarch
Louis urged on by Marie Antoinette, sister of Leopold II of
Austria
Louis now a “prisoner” of the Revolution
Revolutionary War
War broke out against France in April 1792
All Europeans took a side in the conflict
Big powers were strongly against the Revolution
Political societies formed outside France proclaimed their
allegiance to the Revolution
France was losing the war in the beginning
Edmund Burke
(1729-1797)
The Counter-Revolution
The émigrés stirred up counterrevolutionary sentiment
They circulated telling horror stories about the Revolution
Edmund Burke (1729-1797)
He was a British Politician
Wrote Reflections on the Revolution in France (1790)
He believed that the Revolution was based too much on
abstract ideas and not practical ones
He attacked the revolution as a crime against the social order
and accused the French of turning their backs on history
He also argued that men and women had no natural rights
This aroused sympathy for the counterrevolutionary cause
The Counter-Revolution
Thomas Paine (1737–1809)
He was an author and one of the Founding Fathers
He wrote The Rights of Man (1792) in response to Burke
He called for political liberalism in all nations
Outside France there was reaction as well
Austria and Prussia declared support for French monarchy in
August 1791
Even in the U.S. there was mixed reaction to the Revolution:
while many people supported it, many believed it had become
too radical
The Counter-Revolution
On April 20, 1792, the Assembly declared war on Austria
and Prussia
Expected the war to bolster public opinion behind the
Revolution
Radicals hoped the war would expose “traitors”
By that summer, the situation bad for France
Prussian troops crossed over the border into France and got
as far as Verdun
Girondins put the blame on Marie Antoinette for giving secrets
to the Austrians
On July 11, 1792, Assembly declared that “La patrie est en
danger”
All citizens were required to arm themselves
Engraving of the death of General Théobald Dillon
Radicalization of the Revolution
As the war continued to worsen for the French, the
Revolution took a more radical turn
Throughout the summer of 1792, there were calls for the
execution of the king
Assembly did not plan to take any direct actions against him
The people were going to have to push the issue
Journée du 10 août (August 10, 1792)
This began the “second” revolution
A mob marched on the Tuileries to take the power away from
the king
When he fled to the Assembly, the mob followed him there
Radicalization of the Revolution
Assembly had to decide what course of action to take
It stripped the king of all of his power
Only about 1/3 of its members made it to the Assembly
Of those in attendance, almost all of them were Jacobins
The royal family was to be placed under arrest
It also called for a new convention to be elected by
universal male suffrage
The job of this National Convention would be to write a new
constitution for the newly created republic
Parisian citizens attacking the Tuileries
September Massacres
On September 1, 1792, news reached the city of Paris
that the fortress at Verdun had fallen
The calls for the execution of political prisoners increased
Patriotic Paris mobs convened revolutionary tribunal to
try traitors
Started with the assassination of a group of non-juring priests
Throughout Paris, many prisoners were killed over the next
five days
Over 1,200 were killed (about ½ the prison population),
including 37 women
The estimated number of assassins involved was 150-200
September Massacres
One of the more famous people executed was the
Princess de Lamballe
She was a friend of the queen who was stripped, hacked to
death, and had her head paraded around on a pike
While some claim that she had also been raped and sexually
mutilated, there is no proof of that
The Parisian government did nothing to stop the killings
Congratulated those who participated in the killings
Said they were doing their “duty” to the country
Encouraged other départments to follow the example
Led to even more killings outside of Paris
Illustration of the September Massacres
National Convention
When the Convention met on September 21, 1792, it was
already dividing up into political groups
The most radical members, including Robespierre, sat high up
in the Mountain seats
The Girondins took the right side of the Convention
The rest of the deputies took their seats in the lower level of
the hall and became known as the Marais (“the plain”)
Jacobins outwardly supported the Parisian mobs
The Mountain also was willing to work with the sans-culottes
The Girondins supported the law and showed little respect
towards the mob
National Convention
Declaration of a Republic (September 22, 1792)
What to do with the king?
Convention was to declare a republic and an end to the
monarchy
This day would later become the first day of Year I
Mountain wanted him executed for crimes against the nation
Girondins wanted to spare the king
Smoking gun
On November 20, 1792, a locked box was found inside the
palace at the Tuileries
It contained Louis’ correspondence with Austria
This proved Louis was guilty of treason
Trial of Louis XVI
Trial of Louis XVI
Trial of Louis XVI (December 11, 1792-January 15, 1793)
Louis was charged with “having committed a multitude of
crimes in order to establish your tyranny by destroying its
liberty”
Convention voted 693-0 that Louis was guilty of all charges
By a majority of 74, it voted him to be executed for his crimes
Execution (January 21, 1793)
Louis was executed in the place de la Concorde by guillotine
Over 20,000 people watched the execution take place
Louis’ last words were “I die innocent of all the crimes of
which I have been charged. I pardon those who have brought
about my death and I pray that the blood you are about to
shed may never be required of France”
Execution of Louis XVI (January 21, 1793)
“Matter for reflection
for the Crowned
Jugglers of Europe”
Domestic Reforms
National Convention put through key domestic reforms
Abolition of slavery in French colonies
Repeal of primogeniture
Confiscated property of enemies of the Revolution
Set maximum prices for grain (loi du maximum)
The revolutionary calendar
Small armies of sans-culottes attacked hoarders and
profiteers
The Convention also had to put through key military
reforms
By February 1793, France was at war with Britain, Netherlands,
Spain, and Austria
Domestic Reforms
Levée (February 24, 1793)
War Against the First Coalition (1793-1797)
Convention put through its first draft
It called for 300,000 men for its army
By March, France was at war with all of Europe
The First Coalition included Prussia, Austria, Great Britain,
Spain, and the United Provinces of the Netherlands
Civil War in Vendée
This was a very Catholic region in central western France that
opposed the new draft
The people of the region erupted in revolt in March
“God and King”
Insignia worn by
rebels in the
Vendée civil war
Background to the Terror
Constitution of 1793
Committee of Public Safety (CPS)
Convention passed a new constitution with universal male
suffrage
It delayed its adoption because of the ever worsening situation
Set up by the Convention on April 6, 1793
Its purpose was defend the country from both domestic and
foreign enemies through the use of terror
Commission of Twelve
Created by the Girondins on May 19, 1793
It was designed to investigate the radical elements of the Paris
Commune and sections
Many radicals were arrested by the Commission
Background to the Terror
New radical leaders
Helped to shift the Revolution into more dangerous territory
Jean-Paul Marat (1743–1793)
Did not admire Great Britain
Opposed moderates
Edited The Friend of the People
On July 13, 1793, he was assassinated by Girondin Charlotte
Corday
She claimed she “killed one man to save 100,000”
This event sparked anti-Girondist attacks throughout Paris
“Death of Marat”
Jacques-Louis David
(1793)
Background to the Terror
Georges-Jacques Danton (1759–1794)
Maximilien Robespierre (1758–1794)
Popular political leader
Member of the CPS
Wearied of the Terror
Trained as a lawyer
Became president of the National Convention
Member of the CPS
Enlarged the Terror
Things seemed to fall apart both from outside and within
France
Background to the Terror
The war continued to worsen for the French
French forces were pushed out of the Austrian Netherlands
The revolt in the Vendée continued on
Spanish forces crossed over the Pyrenees and Sardinian troops
crossed the Alps into France
The British also installed a naval blockade of France
Toulon fell to the British
Levée en Masse (August 23, 1793)
All able-bodied men in France between the ages of 18-25 were
to prepare for war
It also mobilized the French people to help with the war effort
Background to the Terror
By September 1794, the Republican Army had over 1.1
million soldiers
This was the largest army seen in Europe to date
This army was then able to turn the war to the advantage of
the French
CPS faced sabotage from the political left and right
Need for absolute control
The “Mountain” allies with Parisian artisans
Rebellions in Lyons, Bordeaux, and Marseilles
CPS rounds up suspects in the countryside
Reign of Terror
Reign of Terror
On September 5, 1793, mass demonstrations broke out
again in Paris
Wanted greater measures against the counter-revolution
Including the arrest of all counter-revolutionaries and the
creation of a internal Revolutionary Army to put down any
revolts
“Terror is the order of the day”
Announced by the Committee
Would be willing to use whatever means necessary to end the
counter-revolutionary movement inside France
This starts the “Reign of Terror”
From this point on, the Committee is the one running the
country
Reign of Terror
One of the first executed was Marie Antoinette
She was brought to trial on October 14, 1793
Even though there were a number of attempts to help her
escape, she never once went along with them
The charges included incest with her son, sending military
information to the enemy, and being personally responsible for
the death of the Swiss Guards on August 10, 1792
The “Widow Capet” was found guilty the next day
She was executed by the guillotine on October 16, 1793
Execution of Marie Antoinette (October 16, 1793)
Reign of Terror
Over the next few months, thousands were arrested and
executed at the guillotine
By the end of the Terror, over 100,000 were “officially”
arrested
Modern estimates are around 300,000
Over 16,000 were executed “officially”
3,000 in Paris alone
Many historians believe that the actual death total was as high
as 40,000-50,000
The areas hit hardest were those where the counterrevolution was located
Reign of Terror
At the beginning, the executions were many held in the
cities
In Lyons alone, almost 2,000 were killed
At one point, the Committee’s agent in the city believe the
executions were not going fast enough so he ordered
executions by cannon as well
By 1794, the Terror moved into the provinces
There were no class boundaries: 6% of those executed were
clergy, 8% nobility, 15% middle class, and 70% peasants and
working class
The peasants were mainly accused of hoarding bread and
avoiding the draft
Reign of Terror
In the city of Nantes, those found guilty were placed in
barges in the middle of the Loire River
In the middle of the night, men would punch open trapdoors in
the boats causing them to sink
Over 2,000 died this way with another 3,000 dying of disease
in overcrowded prisons
In Bordeaux, some of the worst atrocities took place
One woman was forced to sit under the blade of a guillotine
with blood dripping on her for hours before she was executed
just because she cried over her husband’s death
Reign of Terror
The executions took on a festival atmosphere
Tens of thousands would witness them with cries of “á la
guillotine!”
Executions became known as the “red mass” with the
guillotine as the “altar”
Bets would be taken on the order of who would be executed
first
Many lived in fear of being brought up on charges
Others became sick of all the death
Madame Roland said “The time as come which was foretold
when the people would ask for bread and be given corpses”
“It is dreadful but
necessary”
“Cest affreux mais
nécessaire”
From the Journal d'Autre
Monde (1794)
Rule of the CPS
The CPS did pass some beneficial laws
Many of the laws it passed were designed to protect the
“people,” specifically the sans-culottes
Published all laws and decrees made by the government
(Bulletin des loix)
It limited the amount of gold exported
All foreign specie and paper money was confiscated and
replaced with assignats
Set the maximum price for bread and other necessities (loi du
maximum général)
Ended what was left of the manorial system
Created extensive public schools
Fashion of the French Revolution
Culture of the Revolution
Revolution had impact on all aspects of life
Fashion was guided strongly by those in power
Prior to the Revolution, fashioned was focused on the elite and
privileged
During the radical revolution, fashion mimicked the clothing of
the sans-culottes
People would wear the Red Cap of Liberty
Hairstyles changed
Instead of long powdered hair, encouraged short hair
Short hair “is the only one which is suited to republicans: being
simple, economical and requiring little time, it is care-free and
so assures the independence of a person; it bears witness to a
mind given to reflection, courageous enough to defy fashion.”
Culture of the Revolution
Everything associated with the ancien regime was to be
destroyed and a new civilization built on top of it
How you addressed a person was changed
No longer would a person be addressed as monsieur or
madame
Now they were to be addressed as Citizen
In the arts, there were no longer to be any religious
images
Artwork now focused on more patriotic images
This included personifying ideas such as virtue, republic, liberty
It also included images of battle and heroism, with people dying
to save the Republic
Revolution playing cards with the king and queen replaced
with the elements “La Terre” and “L’Air”
Revolutionary Calendar
Revolutionary Calendar
The purpose was to rid France of every aspect of Christianity
including the Gregorian calendar
It was adopted on October 5, 1793
There would still be twelve months
Months had new names based on nature
They were all 30 days long
Weeks (décades) were divided up into ten day slots instead of
seven
The days were also renamed as well: primidi (first day), duodi
(second day), tridi (third day), etc.
The new year would start on the Autumnal Equinox
Revolutionary Calendar
Remaining five days would be holidays
In leap years, an extra day known as “Fraciade” was put in
Be a celebration of a Revolution four years in the making
Not everyone was enamored with the new calendar
They were to be known as the sans-culottides
Devoted to festivals representing the Revolutionary ideals
Many peasants and workers were upset
Others did not like the removal of Sundays and saints’ days
The British enjoyed making fun of the new calendar
They translated the months as “Wheezy, Sneezy and Freezy;
Slippy, Drippy and Nippy; Showery, Flowery and Bowery;
Wheaty, Heaty and Sweety”
Autumn
Winter
Spring
Summer
Vendémiaire
(“grape harvest”)
September 22
Nivôse
(“snowy”)
December 21
Germinal
(“seeding”)
March 21
Messidor
(“harvest”)
June 19
Brumaire
(“foggy”)
October 22
Pluviôse
(“rainy”)
January 20
Floréal
(“flowering”)
April 20
Thermidor
(“summer heat”)
July 19
Frimaire
(“frosty”)
November 21
Ventôse (“windy”)
February 19
Prairial
(“pasture”)
May 20
Fructidor
(“fruitful”)
August 18
Dechristianization
Dechristianization of France
All of these efforts were part of a greater effort to
dechristianize France
This had been going on since the passage of the Civil
Constitution of the Clergy
During the Reign of Terror, there were even greater
moves to rid the country of Christianity
Many pushed for a culte de la Raison (Cult of Reason)
Demonstrations broke out to bring an end to Christianity
Notre Dame cathedral was rechristened the Temple of Reason
Convention outlawed Catholic mass on November 24, 1793
In its place, the Cult of Reason was considered the “official”
religion
Thermidor
Last Days of the Terror
During the spring of 1794, the CPS focused its attention
on all dissenting groups
In March, many of the radicals (enrages) in Paris were executed
In April the more conservative members of the Mountain were
executed as well, including Danton
Robespierre surrounded himself with like-minded individuals
under the guise of national security
Also that spring the Revolutionary Army was winning
The army now had 800,000 men
The Coalition was also distracted by the Kościuszko Uprising
in Poland
The army was preparing for an all out invasion of the
Netherlands to occur that winter
Last Days of the Terror
In Paris, Robespierre continued to assert his power
On May 7, 1794, he created the Cult of the Supreme
Being
This was a blend of Deism and republican values designed to
replace the Cult of Reason
Not everyone was pleased with this change
It did not have the pageants or festivals associated with the
Cult of Reason
Also, this new religion did not allow for other religions to exist
On June 8th, Robespierre held the Festival of the Supreme
Being
Festival of the Supreme Being
Thermidorian Reaction
By this point, the need for the CPS was gone
The French military was now winning so there was no longer a
need to protect the security of the nation
The food shortages and out of control inflation had ended
Even the revolt in the Vendée had died down
The CPS also lost the support of those who had originally
put them in power
Part of this had to do with the execution of the enrages and
Dantonists
Part had to do with the forced Cult of the Supreme Being
Thermidorian Reaction
Law of 22 Prairial (June 10, 1794)
Passed by the CPS
This was also as the loi de la Grande Terreur
Limited a suspect’s ability to defend him/herself
Increased the number of “crimes” punishable by death
That month, over 1,300 were executed in Paris alone
With this, numerous rumors flew around the city of plots
to overthrow Robespierre
Robespierre responded by addressing the Convention,
threatening them with arrest
Thermidorian Reaction
Robespierre’s Arrest (July 27, 1794)
On 9 Thermidor, the National Convention with demands for
his arrest
He was arrested later that day with four of his supporters
The next day, Robespierre was executed without trial
The purpose of the Reaction was clear
Now that the country was more stable, the Convention
wanted to reassert its own power
Many believed that the Committee and the Paris Commune
had taken too much power
The power would go back into the hands of the people
Execution of Robespierre (July 28, 1794)
Thermidorian Reaction
“White Terror”
This was followed with the systematic elimination of Jacobins
throughout France
Jacobins were arrested and executed and Jacobin Clubs shut
down
Ironically, 45 anti-Robespierrists were executed on July 27th but
104 Robespierrists were killed the next day by the same
guillotine
Governmental policies took a more moderate leaning
Many members were Girondins who had survived the storm of
the terror
Many of the policies were beneficial mainly to the middle-class
Thermidorian Reaction
The poor were still unhappy with the Reaction
A majority of their leaders had been killed
The Convention lifted all of the beneficial price controls
implemented during the Terror
Inflation once again became severe
The winter of 1794-5 was harsh
By April 1795, the price of bread skyrocketed again to more
than 2 livres a pound
New cries rose up for bread and relief from food shortages
Revolts broke out once again throughout France
Constitution of Year III
Working on a new constitution (summer 1795)
Constitution of Year I was deemed to radical
Democracy now was associated with the Terror and mob rule
Still wanted to embrace the ideals of the Enlightenment
The new constitution was still to be much more conservative
Constitution of Year III (August 22, 1795)
Executive power would be held by a new five-man Directory
Legislative power would be held by two councils
Council of 500 contained men over the age of 30 and had the
power to write the laws
Council of Ancients contained 250 married or widowed men
over the age of 40 and had the power to pass the laws
Constitution of Year III
In order to keep the councils “fresh,” one-third of the
members of each council must retire each year
The aim of this set up was to avoid a dictatorship but
prevent excessive democracy as well
The Constitution also changed voter eligibility
No longer was there universal male suffrage
Instead, eligibility was based on property ownership
The members of the new government were mainly
Girondins
Mainly of the wealthy middle-class
Louis XVIII
(de jure 1795-1824)
(de facto 1814-1824)
Thermidorian Reaction
One of the greatest threats the Convention and the new
Constitution faced was from the Royalists
Return of the émigrés
Death of Louis XVII (June 8, 1795)
Convention grated amnesty to those who fled France after
May 1793
It was seen as proof of its more moderate temperament
This brought the hopes of a reestablished monarchy to some
Louis XVI’s son had died from tuberculosis
Many began to turn to Louis XVI’s brother, the Comte de
Provence, as their new king (Louis XVIII)
Royalist Unrest
Declaration of Verona (June 24, 1795)
Louis XVIII stated France must return to pre-Revolutionary
status
This included a restoration of the Old Regime, returning all
lands confiscated to their original owners, and the old manorial
system
By making such a request, this ends any support for the
restoration of the monarchy by a majority of the population
There was still enough support to cause significant unrest
The Royalists were also offended by the new constitution as
they had been excluded from participating in the new
government
In June 1795, a Royalist offensive broke out in northwest
France which led to a new civil war in that region
Royalist Unrest
Royalist supporters looked for the perfect opportunity to
attack the Convention
One of the groups they played to was the urban poor
By September 1795, the cost of living was 30 times higher than
that in 1790 due to severe inflation
For example, sugar went up from 11 to 62 livres a pound
Economic conditions gave the Royalists what they needed
They could play upon the general unrest of the time for their
own cause
Their plan: both counter-revolutionaries and émigrés were to
attack Paris directly
Royalist Unrest
Royalist forces landed in the Vendée in September 1795
In Paris, the Royalists were agitating the situation
The forces included 3,000 émigrés and British troops
The troops met up with other royalist forces and proceeded to
march to the city of Paris
Blamed the Convention for the poor economic conditions
This led to a number of riots to break out throughout the city
On October 4, 1975, Convention forces under General
Jacques-François Menou marched into Le Pellitier section
This was where the heart of the rioting was taking place
He tried to negotiate with the rioters instead of disarming them
Menou was replaced by the Convention with Paul Barras
Barras appointed a young Brigadier-General Napoléon Bonaparte to
serve under him
Napoléon Bonaparte
(1769-1821)
Napoléon Bonaparte (1769-1821)
Napoleone di Buonaparte (1769-1821)
Napoléon and the early Revolution
Born in Corsica to a minor noble family
Starting at the age of 10, received extensive military training
Napoléon was fighting in Corsica
The fight there was not only between Revolutionaries and
Royalists, but Corsican Nationalists as well
By 1792, he aligned himself with the Jacobins
Siege of Toulon (autumn 1793)
When he first made a name for himself
His artillery tactics helped to retake the city on December 19
During the battle, he was injured by a bayonet in the thigh
Napoléon Bonaparte (1769-1821)
Promotion to Brigadier-General
During the Thermidorian Reaction, Napoléon fell out of
favor
Because of his actions at Toulon, he was promoted to
Brigadier-General
He was also given the command of an Italian artillery in Nice
This was due to his association with Robespierre’s family
He was arrested for a short period of time
Napoléon was then assigned to fight as part of the
infantry in the Vendée
He refused to do so because it was seen as a demotion
He claimed he was ill and required sick leave
Napoléon Bonaparte (1769-1821)
When he returned, he asked for a field command
His next step was to travel to the Ottoman Empire
Instead was given a staff position in the Bureau of Topography
Napoléon was miserable in this position
He was even removed from the list of active generals because
he refused to go to the Vendée
He was hoping to gain an artillery position with the Sultan
Napoléon happened to be in Paris when he was
approached by Barras
Barras had been one of the commanders at Toulon
Napoléon was quick to take command on October 4, 1795
Journée of 13 Vendémiaire
13 Vendémiaire
Journée of 13 Vendémiaire (October 5, 1795)
The Royalists had over 40,000 troops
Royalist forces began to march to the Tuileries to overthrow
the Convention
This included those forces marching into the city from the
west and the sections in Paris
The Convention only had around 8,000
Earlier that morning, Napoléon had sent for 40 cannons
located outside of the city to aid his troops
This decision proved to be a key move because the cannons
negated the numbers advantage the Royalists had
13 Vendémiaire
Between the artillery and the “Patriots” battalions, the
Royalist forces were defeated in two hours
Because of his successful command, Napoléon was
promoted to Général de Division
19th century historian, Thomas Carlyle, said that Napoléon
defeated them with “a whiff of grapeshot”
He was only 26 at the time
Law of 3 Brumaire (October 25, 1795)
Convention forbade all seditionists from holding public office
Now, the Royalists were no longer a threat to the Revolution
Paul Barras
Director
(1795-1799)
The Directory
The Directory first met on November 3, 1795
Directors wanted to fix “the chaos which always
accompanies revolutions by a new social order”
All five of the Directors chosen came from the Convention
Mix of Jacobins and moderates
However they were to be unsuccessful
Faced discontent from both the left and the right
Most of the discontent was due to worsening economic
conditions
The value of assignats had fallen down to 5% of its original
value
100 livres note “could now be exchanged for no more than
fifteen sous” (20 sous = 1 livre)
Threat From the Left
François-Noël “Gracchus” Babeuf (1760-1797)
Supported many “communist” ideas
Wanted “perfect equality” among all the people of France
including the abolition of private property and the equal
distribution of food and goods to the population
Believed such change could only come about through violence
He created a new paper, Eclaireur du Peuple, ou le Défenseur de
Vingt-Cinq Millions d'Opprimés
This paper reached thousands as it was sold on the streets of
Paris
As the economic situation continued to worsen, more people
were willing to listen to him
He was arrested and executed
François-Noël
“Gracchus” Babeuf
(1760-1797)
Threat From the Right
In April 1797, elections were held for the two Councils
Turn towards conservatism
Conservatives and those against the Directory were able to
gain a number of seats in both Councils
This meant that the councils now heavily favored moving back
to the right
Council members debated whether or not to continue on with
the republic as it was or go to a constitutional monarchy
Even two of the five Directors supported the idea of a
constitutional monarchy
Radical Directors realized something had to be done
They turned to Napoléon for help
French Revolutionary Wars
Military Successes
In 1795, both Spain and Prussia had already signed peace
agreements with France
In the Vendée, the revolt was finally brought to an end in
March 1796
This ended their participation in the First Coalition
Estimates ranged from 40,000 to 250,000 dead, out of a
population of around 800,000
In the spring of 1796, Napoléon was placed in charge of
the Army of Italy
He proceeded to push the Austrians out of northern Italy
His actions also allowed the local provinces to overthrown
their old, and much hated, governments
Military Successes
In October, Napoléon created the Cispadane Republic
This was made up of the provinces of Bologna, Ferrara,
Modena, and Reggio Emilia
Its capital was located in Milan
The main purpose of the Republic was to help organize troops
for a new offensive by the Austrians
With his successes, money poured into the French
treasury
This made him even more popular with the masses
The Directory finally had enough money to help fix the
economic situation
Part of this included the creation of the franc to replace
assignats in February 1797
Military Successes
On April 17, 1797, the Peace of Leoben was drafted
The terms of the peace were not formalized until October 17,
1797 with the Treaty of Campo Formio
France received the Austrian Netherlands (Belgium) and all lands
west of the Rhine River
Austria received the city of Venice which had been captured by
Napoléon
The delay was due to the domestic problems inside France at this
time
The treaty marked the end of the First Coalition against France
The only major force against France at this point was Great
Britain
Even they were suffering from the effects of the war and economic
problems on top of it
Territories after the Treaty
of Campo Formio
Political Crisis of 1797
As Napoléon was considered a national hero, the three
Jacobin Directors turned to him for help
Coup d’État of 18 Fructidor IV (September 4, 1797)
Wanted to overthrow the conservative Councils
Napoléon sent General Pierre-François-Charles Augereau
along with a large contingent of troops to Paris
Conservatives forcibly removed from their positions
Back to Jacobin-styled politics
Laws were enacted against émigrés and their families
Freedom of the press was terminated
Nonjuring priests were once again prosecuted
All of this was done to “protect” the Revolution
Battle of the Pyramids
War in Egypt
Once Napoléon turned his attention to Great Britain
Turn to Egypt
Egypt was under the control of the Ottoman Turks
If he could take Egypt, he could threaten British trade to India
The British fleet trapped Napoléon’s forces in Egypt
Knew that France was not prepared for a naval battle against
Britain nor the proposed invasion of Britain
At the Battle of the Nile, the British navy destroyed the French
fleet and cut off the army’s supply lines
Napoléon’s expedition into Egypt angered many of
France’s old enemies
Slowly, a Second Coalition was formed against France
War of the Second Coalition
By early 1799, France was at war with Great Britain,
Austria and Russia
Things did not go well for France
Russia joined as it had its own designs for the Middle East
Russian troops invaded northern Italy
The Cisalpine Republic was destroyed
Austria began challenging the French in Germany as well
The Directory was forced to call a new levée en masse
Needed to provide enough troops for this new war
Riots broke out against the new draft
War of the Second Coalition
Many in France were upset with the turn of events
Government began supporting more radical ideas
Jacobin papers once again began circulating
Forced loans were enacted against the wealthy members of
society
Not everyone was pleased with the new changes
Specifically with the ever growing number of military defeats
Many were fearful of a return to the Terror
In May 1799, Abbé Sieyès was appointed as Director
He warned against returning to the radical ideas and mob rule
He was more than willing to take necessary action to prevent
this from occurring again
30 Prairial VII
Coup of 30 Prairial VII (June 18, 1799 )
Small bloodless coup took place in the ranks of the Directors
A motion began in the Councils to have the other two radical
members of the Directory removed
Replaced with more moderate and politically unknown men
Directors Sieyès and Barras went along with this
By October, France was much more relaxed
The French army was successful at retaking Switzerland
Russia left the Coalition because it could not get along with
Britain
The only place the military was not successful was in Egypt
Napoléon placed command of the army under one of his
subordinates and secretly returned back to France
French Republic
and its Satellites
(1798-1799)
18 Brumaire
Change to moderation
Sieyès and his followers hoped to use Napoléon to bring about
a change in government
Wanted to prevent the radicals from again taking control
Wanted the Councils to put together a moderate commission
to draft a new constitution
As part of this, Napoléon would place troops conveniently
around the city in case force was necessary
Some Councilmen knew there was a plan for a coup
They began spreading rumors of a Jacobin conspiracy “to
convert the two Councils into a national convention”
Hope was to create a panic
18 Brumaire
Events of 18 Brumaire VIII (November 9, 1799)
Councils were moved to Château de Saint-Cloud just outside
of Paris for their safety
Later that day, three of Directors resigned (Sieyès, Barras, and
Roger Ducos)
The other two refused; one was arrested but the other
escaped
Some Councilmen suspected that there was no
conspiracy and that there was a coup taking place
Instead they realized a coup was taking place
Began swearing an oath to uphold the Constitution of Year III
18 Brumaire
Napoléon tried to calm the Council of 500
The councilors began calling for Napoléon’s arrest
They called him a “military dictator” who was destroying the
Constitution
Napoléon responded with “The Constitution! You yourselves
have destroyed it…It no longer has the respect of anyone.”
His own men had to carry him out of the meeting hall to
protect him from the councilors
Lucien Bonaparte was the President of the Council of 500
Told the Council that the ones calling for Napoléon’s arrest
were armed and planning to assassinate Napoléon
When the troops found out about it, they marched into the
Château and arrested the dissenting councilors
18 Brumaire
Following this, the members of the Council of Ancients
who were left voted out the Directory
Until a new constitution could be drafted, three
provisional consuls were appointed
First they suspended both Councils for three months and then
voted out the Constitution of Year III
They then appointed a Legislative Assembly to begin drafting a
new Constitution
They were Napoléon, Sieyès, and Roger Ducos
This marks the end of the Directory Period and the end
of the French Revolution
Napoléon in
front of the
Council of 500
