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Download Unit 17 ~ World War II
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World War II “Yesterday, December 7, 1941 - a date which will live in infamy – the United States of America was suddenly and deliberately attacked by naval and air forces of the Empire of Japan.” Franklin Delano Roosevelt asking for a Declaration of War Congressional Record, December 8 , 1941 Timeline of Events • 1931 • The Empire State Building opens in New York City • Japan conquers Manchuria in northern China Timeline of Events • 1932 – Franklin Delano Roosevelt is elected president • 1933 – Adolf Hitler is appointed German chancellor and sets up Dachau concentration camp – Prohibition ends Timeline of Events • 1934 • Stalin begins great purge in U.S.S.R. • Chinese communists flee in the Long March Timeline of Events • 1936 – Jesse Owens wins four gold medals in Olympics in Berlin, Germany – Ethiopia’s Halle Selassie asks League of Nations for help against Italian invasion – General Francisco Franco leads a fascist rebellion in Spain – Roosevelt is reelected Timeline of Events • 1937 – Amelia Earhart mysteriously disappears attempting solo round the world flight • 1938 – Orson Welles broadcasts The War of the Worlds, a fictional alien invasion – Kristallnacht – Nazis riot, destroying Jewish neighborhoods Timeline of Events • 1939 – Germany invades Poland, Britain and France declare war on Germany • 1940 – Roosevelt is elected to a third term – Italy, Germany, and Japan sign a mutual defense pact becoming the Axis Powers – Selective Service begins Timeline of Events • 1941 – Lend-Lease Act is passed by Congress – Japan bombs Pearl Harbor – United States enters World War II – A. Philip Randolph demands that war industries hire African Americans – Hitler invades the Soviet Union Timeline of Events • 1942 – Roosevelt creates the War Production Board to coordinate mobilization – Japanese Americans are sent to relocation centers – In the Pacific, the Battle of Midway turned the tide in favor of the Allies Timeline of Events • 1942 – Nazis develop the “final solution” for exterminating Jews. – Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC) is founded – Manhattan Project begins Timeline of Events • 1943 – Zoot-suit riots rock Los Angeles – Rommel’s forces surrender in North Africa • 1944 – On June 6, the Allies launch D-Day, a massive invasion of Europe – Roosevelt is elected to a fourth term Timeline of Events • 1945 – U.S. marines take Iwo Jima – Harry S Truman becomes president when Roosevelt dies – Nazi retreat begins after the Battle of the Bulge – Japan surrenders after atomic bombing of Hiroshima and Nagasaki Failures of the World War I Peace Settlement • The Treaty of Versailles caused anger and resentment • Germany was angry that they were blamed for starting the war, and were forced to pay reparations • These problems overwhelmed the Weimar Republic—the democratic government put in place after WWI • The Soviets were also angry with the carving up of their territories Europe 1914---Europe 1919 Failures of the World War I Peace Settlement • The world was still not “safe for democracy” • New democratic governments that emerged floundered • Without a democratic tradition, people turned to authoritarian leaders to solve their economic and social problems • Eventually many democratic governments collapsed • Dictators seized power Emerging Superpowers Joseph Stalin transforms Soviet Union • In Russia, democracy gave way to civil war • The result: a communist state officially called the Soviet Union • 1922—Lenin died • 1924—Joseph Stalin took control of the country • He focused on creating a model communist country • He made agricultural and industrial growth the prime economic goals Joseph Stalin transforms Soviet Union • He abolished all privately owned farms and replaced them with collectives—large government owned farms—each worked by hundreds of families • By 1939, Stalin had established a totalitarian government that tried to exert complete control over its citizens • In a totalitarian state, individuals have no rights and the government suppresses all opposition The Rise of Fascist Italy • Benito Mussolini was establishing his own totalitarian government • High unemployment and inflation produced bitter strikes • Alarmed by the threats, the middle and upper classes demanded stronger leadership • Mussolini took advantage of the situation and played on fears of economic collapse and communism • Mussolini easily won the support of Italians The Rise of Fascist Italy • 1921—Mussolini established the Fascist Party • Fascism—stressed nationalism and placed the interests of the state above those of individuals • Power must rest with a single strong leader and a small group of devoted party members • 1922-Mussolini and thousands of his followers, called “black shirts”, marched on Rome • When important government officials, the army, and the police sided with the Fascists, the Italian king appointed Mussolini head of government The Rise of Fascist Italy • Calling himself Il Duce, or “the leader”, he extended control to every aspect of Italian life • Tourists marveled at how even the trains were on time • He completed his goals through the crushing of all opposition and by making Italy totalitarian Nazis in Germany • Hitler followed the same path Mussolini did to gain power • After WW1, Hitler was a jobless soldier • 1919—he joined the National Socialist German Workers’ Party (NAZI) • He was a powerful public speaker • He quickly became the party’s leader • Calling himself Der Fuhrer, “the leader”, he promised to bring Germany out of chaos Nazis in Germany • Adolph Hitler wrote Mein Kampf (My Struggle) • In the book, Hitler set forth the basic beliefs of Nazism that became the plan of action for the Nazi Party • Nazism—German form of Fascism—based on extreme nationalism • Hitler was born Austrian and dreamed of uniting all German speaking peoples in one empire Nazis in Germany • Hitler wanted to enforce racial “purification” • Germans—blue-eyed, blond-haired “Aryans”— formed a “master race” destined to rule the world • “Inferior races”—Jews, Slavs, and all non-whites were deemed only fit to serve the Aryans Nazis in Germany • National expansion • He believed that for Germany to thrive, it needed more living space • One of his goals was to secure the land entitled to the German people by any means necessary Nazis in Germany • The Great Depression helped the Nazis come to power • War debts and dependence on American loans and investments caused Germany’s economy was hit hard • 6 million Germans were unemployed by 1932 • Many men out of work joined Hitler’s private army—Storm Troopers (brown shirts) • Germans were desperate and turned to Hitler for help Nazis in Germany • By mid 1932, the Nazis had become the strongest political party in Germany • January 1933—Hitler appointed Chancellor (prime minister) • Hitler quickly dismantled Germany’s democratic republic • He established the Third Reich, or Third German Empire • Hitler said the Third Reich would become the Thousand-year Reich Militarists Gain Control in Japan • On the other side of the world nationalistic military leaders were trying to take control of the imperial government of Japan • These leaders shared Hitler’s belief for more living space • Ignoring protests from moderate officials, the militarists launched a surprise attack and seized control of Manchuria in 1931 Militarists Gain Control in Japan • The attack proved to be the greatest test of the newly formed League of Nations • Representatives were sent to investigate • Their report condemned Japan • Japan quit the League • The Militarists were now firmly in control of the Japanese government Heading For War Aggression in Europe and Africa • The League of Nations failed and European dictators noticed • In 1933, Hitler pulled out of the League • In 1935, he began a military buildup— violating the Treaty of Versailles • He then sent troops into the Rhineland— had been demilitarized as a result of the war • The League of Nations did nothing Aggression in Europe and Africa • Mussolini also began building his own empire • His first target: Ethiopia • 1935—tens of thousands of Italian soldiers were ready to march on Ethiopia • The League reacted with brave talk of “collective resistance to all acts of unprovoked aggression” • When Mussolini attacked, the League reacted with an economic boycott • The Ethiopian emperor who had been overthrown appealed to the League for help, but to no avail • He replied to the League—”It’s us today, it will be you tomorrow” Civil War breaks out in Spain • General Francisco Franco and other army officers rebelled against the Spanish republic • Revolts broke out all over Spain • The Spanish Civil War broke out • The war aroused passions all over the world • 3000 Americans formed the Abraham Lincoln Battalion and traveled to Spain to fight against Franco and Fascism • Among the volunteers were African Americans still upset about Italy attacking Ethiopia the year before • The limited aid was not enough to stop fascism Civil War breaks out in Spain • The Western democracies remained neutral • The Soviet Union sent equipment and advisers • Hitler and Mussolini backed Franco’s forces with troops, weapons, tanks, and fighter planes • The war forged a strong alliance between German and Italian dictators • After a loss of almost 500,000 lives, Franco’s victory in 1939 established him as Spain’s fascist dictator Americans Cling to Isolationism • In the 1930’s, many books were written arguing that the U.S. had been dragged into WW1 by greedy bankers and arms dealers • Public outcries led to a congressional committee • Led by North Dakota Senator Gerald Nye, the committee fueled the controversy by documenting the large profits that banks and manufacturers made during the war • As the furor grew over these “merchants of death,” Americans became more determined than ever to avoid war Americans Cling to Isolationism • to avoid appearing militaristic, the Girl Scouts changed their colors from green and khaki • American isolationism eventually had an impact on Roosevelt’s foreign policy • He officially recognized the Soviet Union in 1933 and agreed to exchange ambassadors with Moscow Americans Cling to Isolationism • He continued the nonintervention in Latin America with his Good Neighbor Policy and withdrew armed forces stationed there • In 1934, he pushed the Reciprocal Trade Agreement Act through Congress – This act lowered trade barriers by giving the president the power to make trade agreements – It also aimed at lowering tariffs by as much as 50% • Congress then passed a series of Neutrality Acts in 1935 Americans Cling to Isolationism • The first two Neutrality Acts outlawed arms sales or loans to nations at war • The third act was passed in response to the fighting in Spain – This act extended the ban on arms sales and loans to nations engaged in civil wars Neutrality Breaks Down • Despite efforts to legislate neutrality, Roosevelt found it impossible to remain neutral • When Japan formally declared war on China in 1937, Roosevelt found a way around the neutrality acts • The U.S. continued sending arms and supplies to China • A few months later, Roosevelt spoke out against isolationism • He called on peace-loving nations to “quarantine” aggressor nations in order to stop the spread of war Neutrality Breaks Down • Isolationist newspapers spoke out claiming Roosevelt was leading the nation into war • Roosevelt backed off in the face of criticism, but his speech began to shift the debate The War in Europe • Hitler met with his advisers and declared that the only way to solve the “German Question” is through force • The first phase was to absorb Austria and Czechoslovakia into The Third Reich • On March 12, 1938, German troops marched into Austria unopposed • There were about 3 million Germans living in the Sudetenland • Hitler charged the Czechs were abusing the Sudeten Germans and began massing troops on the Czech border The War in Europe • France and Britain both swore to protect Czechoslovakia • Hitler invited both the French premier Edouard Daladier and British prime minister Neville Chamberlain to Munich • When they arrived, Hitler promised this would be his “last territorial demand” • They two leaders chose to believe him • On September 30, 1938 all three signed the Munich Agreement, which turned the Sudetenland over to Germany without a single shot being fired The War in Europe • Chamberlain returned home proclaiming peace • Winston Churchill was not as satisfied with the Agreement • Churchill believed France and Britain had adopted a form of appeasement—or giving up principles to pacify an aggressor • Churchill responded with a warning of war on the horizon German Offensive Begins • Churchill was right • March 15, 1939, Hitler invaded the remaining part of Czechoslovakia • About two months later, Hitler charged that the Poles were mistreating Germans in Poland • He began massing an army to invade Poland • Some thought he was bluffing • An attack on Poland would bring Germany at odds with the Soviets • At the same time it would also provoke war with France and Britain who had promised to protect Poland German Offensive Begins • As tensions rose over Poland, Stalin signed a nonaggression act with Hitler • Once bitter enemies, Stalin and Hitler now promised not to attack one another • They then signed a second agreement promising to split Poland between each other • With the danger of a two-front war eliminated, the fate of Poland was sealed Blitzkrieg in Poland • Dawn, September 1, 1939—the German Luftwaffe began bombing Poland • German tanks raced across the countryside • This invasion was the first test of Germany’s blitzkrieg, or lightning war • They made use of military technology to take the enemy by surprise and then quickly crush all opposition • Two days later Britain and France declared war on Germany Blitzkrieg in Poland • The blitzkrieg tactics worked perfectly • Major fighting was over before the allies could mount an offensive • In the last week of fighting, the Soviet Union attacked from the east and grabbed a portion of Poland • By the end, Poland ceased to exist and WW2 had begun The Phony War • For the next several months, French and British soldiers sat on the Maginot Line staring into Germany waiting for something to happen • A few miles away, the Germans sat on the Siegfried Line staring back • The Germans called this the sitzkrieg “sitting war” • Some newspapers called it the Phony War The Phony War • Stalin began annexing the Baltic states of Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania • Late in 1939, Stalin sent troops into Finland • After three months of fighting Finland surrendered • In April 1940, Hitler suddenly attacked Denmark and Norway in order “to protect [those countries’] freedom and independence.” • Hitler really wanted their sea coasts for his naval bases • Next, Hitler turned on Belgium, Luxembourg, and the Netherlands • The Phony War had ended The Fall of France • The Maginot Line proved to be ineffective • The German threatened to bypass the line by going through Belgium • Hitler sent his generals through the Ardennes avoiding British and French troops • The Germans marched toward Paris • The Germans had trapped almost 400,000 French, British and Belgian soldiers • They fled to the beaches of Dunkirk and escaped the Germans by crossing the Channel on fishing barges and small tugboats The Fall of France • A few days later, Italy entered the war on the German side and began attacking France from the south • On June 22, 1940, at Compiegne, Hitler handed French officers his terms of surrender • Germans would occupy the northern part of France, and a Nazi-controlled puppet government, headed by Marshal Philippe Petain, would be set up at Vichy in the south The Fall of France • Charles de Gaulle fled to England where he set up a government-inexile and proclaimed “France has lost a battle, but France has not lost the war.” The Battle of Britain • In the summer of 1940, the Germans assembled an invasion fleet along the French coast • Even though they could not compete with Britain’s naval power, Germany launched an air war at the same time it launched a naval war on Britain • The Luftwaffe began making bombing runs over Britain • Its goal was to control the skies and defeat the RAF • Hitler had over 2600 planes—in one day—August 15—he sent over 2000 towards London • For two solid months, London was pounded The Battle of Britain • The fight lasted through the summer and fall • At first the Germans targeted airfields, but then went after the cities • With the help of radar, the RAF brilliantly fought against the Germans • On September 15, 1940, the RAF shot down 185 German planes, and lost only 26 of their own • Six weeks later, Hitler called off the invasion • But German bombers still continued to bomb British cities in order to disrupt production Genocide The Holocaust • When Hitler took control, he ordered all “non-Aryans” out of government jobs • Jews were not the only victims of the Holocaust, but they were the center of the Nazis’ targets • Anti-Semitism, or hatred of Jews, had a long history in many European countries • For years Germans blamed the Jews for the economic struggles • Hitler found many willing to share his belief that Jews were responsible for Germany’s economic problems and defeat in WW1 Kristallnacht • November 9-10, 1938, became known as Kristallnacht, or “night of broken glass” • Storm Troopers attacked Jewish homes, businesses and synagogues across Germany • Around 100 Jews were killed • Hundreds more injured • 30,000 were arrested • Afterward, the Germans blamed the Jews for the destruction Jewish Refugees • Nazi’s tried to speed Jewish emigration, but ran into difficulty • Jews were having trouble finding nations that would take them in • France already had 40,000 refugees and did not want more • Britain worried about fueling Anti-Semitism and refused to admit more than 80,000 refugees • The U.S. allowed 100,000 refugees, but people wanted to close the doors Plight of the St. Louis • Official indifference to the plight of the Jews was evident in the case of the ship St. Louis • The German Ocean Liner passed by Miami in 1939 • 740 of the 943 passengers had U.S. immigration papers, the Coast Guard followed the ship in case anyone decided to jump ship • The ship was forced to return to Europe Final Solution • By 1939, only about a quarter million Jews remained in Germany • Other nations the Nazi’s occupied had millions more • Obsessed with ridding Europe of Jews, Hitler imposed his “Final Solution”—a policy of genocide, or the systematic killing of an entire population The Condemned • To accomplish the preservation of “the master race” Jews and other races were enslaved and killed • Other groups that were targeted included: – Gypsies: Nazi’s believed were inferior – Freemasons: Nazis charged them with supporting the “Jewish conspiracy” to rule the world – Jehovah’s Witnesses: who refused to join the army or salute Hitler • Other German’s were also targeted—thought to be unfit to be in the “master race” The Condemned • Hitler began implementing his “final solution” in Poland with special Nazi death squads • Hitler’s “security squadrons” rounded up Jews and shot them on the spot Forced Relocation • Jews were ordered into dismal, overcrowded ghettos—segregated Jewish areas in certain Polish cities • The Nazis sealed off the ghettos with barbed wire and stone walls • Life inside was miserable • Bodies of victims piled up faster than they could be removed • Factories were built alongside the ghettos • The people were forced to work in these factories • Jews formed resistance movements inside the ghettos—some public and some underground Concentration Camps • Jews in communities not reached by the killing squads were shipped out to concentration camps • Families were often separated • Originally used to house political opponents and protesters • Turned over to the SS and expanded to include other “undesirables” Concentration Camps • Prisoners were crammed into wooden barracks—1000/barrack • They shared quarters, meals, and fleas • Jews worked from dawn till dusk or until they collapsed • If they were too weak to work, they were killed The Final Stage • The Final Solution reached its final stage in 1942 • Hitler and his officials instituted the final phase of the mass killings—poisonous gas • The overwork, beatings, bullets and starvation were not killing fast enough for the Nazis • 6 death camps were built in Poland The Final Stage • Each camp had several gas chambers where as many as 12,000 people could be killed in a day • When prisoners arrived at Auschwitz, the largest of the camps, they were paraded in front of SS doctors • The doctors would separate the ones that were weak from the ones that were strong • They were then told to leave all their belongings with a promise of getting them later The Final Stage • The ones destined to die were ushered into a room next to the chamber and told to undress to prepare for a shower • The prisoners were even given pieces of soap • They were then taken into the chamber and poisoned with cyanide gas The Final Stage • The mass extermination was sometimes accompanied by cheerful music played by prisoners temporarily spared execution • At first, the bodies were put in huge pits dug by other prisoners • But other camps installed crematoriums to better hide the evidence of the mass killing • If prisoners weren’t gassed, they were shot, hanged or injected with poison The Final Stage • Others died of the horrible medical experiments carried out by camp doctors • Some were injected with deadly germs in order to study the effect of disease on different groups of people • Many others were used to test methods of sterilization as another way of improving the “master race” Survivors • About 6 million Jews were slaughtered or died as a result of the concentration camps • Still, others escaped death—either with help or because the war ended America Joins the War Effort America Moves Towards War • 1939—Roosevelt asked Congress to pass a “cashand-carry” provision that allowed warring nations to buy U.S. arms as long as they paid cash and transported them in their own ships • Roosevelt argued it would help France and Britain defeat Germany but keep the U.S. out of the war • Congress passed the Neutrality Act of 1939— ”cash-and-carry” act Axis Threat • The cash-and-carry policy was nearly too little to late • By 1940, France had fallen and Britain was under siege • By September 1940, the U.S. had provided Britain with hundreds of thousands of weapons and over 50 ships for leases on British bases • Churchill later remarked that this was a “decidedly unneutral act” Axis Threat • September 27—Germany, Italy, and Japan signed a mutual defense treaty, the Tripartite Pact • They became known as the Axis Powers • This treaty aimed at keeping the U.S. out of the war • If the U.S. did enter the war, they would be fighting a two ocean war Building U.S. Defenses • Meanwhile, Roosevelt asked Congress to increase military spending • In spite of years of isolationism, Nazi victories in 1940 changed minds • Congress also passed the nation’s first peace-time draft—Selective Training and Service Act • 16 million men between 21 and 35 were drafted for one year and served only in the Western Hemisphere Roosevelt Runs for a Third Term • 1940—Roosevelt broke the tradition of a twoterm presidency and decided to run for a third term (T.R. had done this nearly 40 years before with non-consecutive terms) • The Republican candidate, Wendell Willkie, supported Roosevelt’s policies and they both promised to keep us out of the war • Since there was very little difference between the two, the majority of voters chose the only one they knew best Roosevelt Wendell Willkie Lend-Lease Plan • After the election, Roosevelt explained that it would be impossible to negotiate a peace with Hitler • By late 1940, Britain had no more money for the war • Roosevelt suggested the Lend-Lease Policy • Under this plan, the president lends or leases arms and other supplies to any country whose defense was vital to the U.S. Lend-Lease Plan • Isolationists argued against the plan, but most Americans favored it • Congress passed the Lend-Lease Act in March 1941 Supporting Stalin • In June 1941, Hitler broke his agreement with Stalin • Roosevelt began sending lend-lease supplies to the S.U. • Some Americans opposed working with Stalin • Roosevelt agreed with Churchill when he said, “if Hitler invaded Hell, Britain would be willing to work with the devil himself.” German Wolf Packs • To send the supplies, supply lines had to be kept open • Hitler tried to stop the lend-lease supplies by sending U-Boats to attack the convoys • From spring to fall of 1941, individual surface attacks by individual U-boats gave way to what became known as the wolf pack attack • U-boats were successful in sinking as much as 350,000 tons of shipments in a single month • September 1941—Roosevelt gave the navy permission to attack German U-boats in self-defense German Wolf Packs • By late 1943, the submarine menace was contained by electronic detection techniques and by airborne antisubmarine patrols Atlantic Charter • In 1941, the House extended the term of draftees • Roosevelt began planning for the war he knew would come • Roosevelt and Churchill met secretly at a summit aboard the USS Augusta • Both agreed to the Atlantic Charter—both countries pledged collective security, disarmament, selfdetermination, economic cooperation, and freedom of the seas • Roosevelt told Churchill he could not ask Congress to declare war on Germany, but that he would do everything to “force an incident” Atlantic Charter • The charter became the basis of a new document—”A Declaration of the United Nations” • The term United Nations was suggested by Roosevelt to express the common purpose of the Allies • The declaration was signed by 26 nations Shoot on Sight • When German U-boats fired on the U.S. destroyer Greer in the Atlantic September 4, 1941, Roosevelt ordered the navy to shoot on sight • Two weeks later, the Pink Star, a merchant ship, was sunk off the coast of Greenland • Again in October, U-boats sank the U.S. destroyer Kearny and 11 lives were lost • Days later, Germans sank the Reuben James killing more than 100 sailors • “…history has recorded who fired the first shot.” Japan’s Ambitions in the Pacific • Japan’s expansion began with Manchuria • Only U.S. territories remained in their way • Japan began with French military bases in Indochina • U.S. responded by cutting off trade with Japan • The embargoed goods included oil—Japan could be defeated without oil • Japan had a choice—persuade the U.S. to end its oil embargo or seize the oil fields in the Dutch East Indies Peace Talks are Questioned • Hideki Tojo (prime minister) met with the emperor Hirohito • He promised to preserve peace with the U.S. • But on November 5, 1941, Tojo ordered the Japanese navy to prepare for an attack on the U.S. • The U.S. had broken Japanese codes and learned they were preparing for attack, but didn’t know where • Late November—Roosevelt sent out a “war warning” to the commanders in the Pacific • Roosevelt wanted Japan to commit the first act Peace Talks are Questioned • The Peace talks went on for a month • On December 6, 1941, Roosevelt received a decoded message that instructed Japan’s peace envoy to reject all American peace proposals • “This means war,” Roosevelt declared Pearl Harbor • December 7, 1941 • Early in the morning, a Japanese dive-bomber swooped low over Pearl Harbor • Followed by more than 180 Japanese warplanes launched from six aircraft carriers • For an hour and a half, the Japanese planes were barely disturbed by antiaircraft guns • In less than 2 hours, the Japanese had killed 2,403 Americans and wounded 1,178 more • They sank 21 ships and severely damaged or destroyed 300 aircraft Pearl Harbor • The Pacific Fleet was nearly wiped out • Only three aircraft carriers escaped the destruction—this proved vital to the outcome of the war Pearl Harbor • In Washington, Roosevelt listened to report after report realizing we now had to fight a war on two fronts • December 8—Roosevelt gave his famous “Infamy” speech • The greatest damage done by Pearl Harbor was to the cause of isolationism • Now, Americans felt that war was the only way Americans Join the War Effort • After Pearl Harbor, Japan boasted that the U.S. was now reduced to a third-rate power and was “trembling in her shoes” • Americans set out to prove Japan wrong • Eager young Americans jammed recruiting offices • 5 million volunteered, but this was not enough for all-out war • The Selective Service System expanded the draft and provided another 10 million soldiers • After 8 weeks of basic training the 15 million soldiers were ready for the fight The Home Front Expanding the Military • The military’s work force needs were so great that Gen. George Marshall pushed for the formation of the Women’s Auxiliary Army Corps (WAAC) • Women would serve in non-combat positions • Some in Congress thought it to be “the silliest piece of legislation” • The law gave women salary and status but few of the benefits granted to men • In 1943, the Army dropped the Auxiliary part and granted full Army benefits to WAC’s Recruiting and Discrimination • For many minority groups, they questioned whether this was their fight • “why die for democracy for some foreign country when we don’t even have it here?” • On receiving his draft notice, an African American responded unhappily, “Just carve on my tombstone, ‘Here lies a black man killed fighting a yellow man for the protection of a white man’” Dramatic Contributions • Despite discrimination, more than 300,000 Mexican Americans joined the armed forces • 1 million African Americans served—they lived and worked in segregated units and were limited mostly to non-combat roles until 1943 • 46,000 Asian Americans served as spies and interpreters in the Pacific • 25,000 Native Americans enlisted too, including 800 women Production • Early 1942, newspapers reported the end of car production for private use • The nation’s automobile plants had been retooled to produce tanks, planes, boats, and command cars • Other factories across the nation were converted as well • A maker of mechanical pencils turned out bomb parts • A bedspread manufacturer made mosquito netting • A soft drink company filled shells with explosives Labor’s Contribution • By 1944, despite the draft, nearly 18 million workers were laboring in war industries, three times as many as in 1941 • More than 6 million of the new workers were women • Industries feared that women lacked the necessary stamina for factory work • Once women proved they could operate welding torches or riveting guns as well as men, employers could not hire enough of them • Women would only earn about 60 percent as much as men doing the same jobs Labor Contribution • Defense plants hired more than 2 million minority workers (janitors) during the war years • To protest discrimination, A. Philip Randolph, founder of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, organized a march on Washington • July 1, 1941—marched under the banner “We Loyal Colored Americans Demand the Right to Work and Fight for Our Country” • Roosevelt called Randolph in and asked him to back down • In the end, it was Roosevelt who backed down Labor Contribution • The president issued an executive order calling on employers and labor unions to provide African Americans and other minorities jobs without discrimination Mobilization of Scientists • 1941—Roosevelt created the Office of Scientific Research and Development • OSRD spurred improvements in radar and sonar • It encouraged the use of pesticides like DDT • As a result, U.S. soldiers were probably the first in history to be free of body lice • It also pushed the development of “miracle drugs,” such as penicillin Mobilization of Scientists • The most significant achievement—atomic bomb • Interest in such a weapon began in 1939, after German scientists succeeded in splitting uranium atoms • Albert Einstein, German refugee, wrote a letter to Roosevelt warning that Germans could construct a weapon of enormous destructive power Mobilization of Scientists • Roosevelt created an Advisory Committee on Uranium • In 1941, the committee told Roosevelt it would take 3-5 years to build an atomic bomb • The OSRD set up an intensive program in 1942 to develop the bomb as quickly as possible • Much of the early research was done at Columbia University in Manhattan giving it the code name the Manhattan project Government takes control of Economy 1942-1945 Agencies and Laws What they did Office of Price Fought inflation by freezing wages, prices Administration and rents National War Labor Limited wage increases, allowed negotiated Board benefits, kept unions stable by forbidding workers to change unions War Production Rationed fuel and materials vital to the war Board effort Department of the Issued war bonds to raise money for the Treasury war effort and to fight inflation Revenue Act of Raised the top personal-income tax rate to 1942 88% Smith-Connally Limited the right to strike, gave the Anti-Strike Act president power to take over striking plants Rationing • The OPA set up a system for rationing • Under this system, households received ration books with coupons to be used for buying such scarce goods as meat, shoes, sugar, coffee, and gasoline • Gas rationing was particularly hard on those who lived in western regions • Most accepted rationing as a personal contribution to the war effort • Many carpooled or rode bicycles • Others bought scarce goods through the “black market” New Strategy on the Western Front War Plans • The Allied strategy after 1941: – First objective: Italy and Germany – Second objective: Japan—after defeat of Hitler • Churchill and Roosevelt agreed to the terms of the strategy at the White House at the end of 1941 Battle of the Atlantic • After Pearl Harbor, Hitler ordered sub raids against ships along America’s east coast • Hitler hoped to starve Britain and the Soviet Union by cutting off their supply lines • For a while, it looked like Hitler would succeed • In the first 4 months of 1942, the Germans sank 87 ships • Seven months into the year, 681 Allied ships were sunk Battle of the Atlantic • Convoys were organized and reversed the damage • At the same time, the U.S. launched a crash shipbuilding program—by mid-1943, 140 Liberty ships were produced each month • By mid-1943, the tide had turned in the Atlantic • The Allies were beginning to sea significant victories on land as well as sea Battle of Stalingrad • Germans had been fighting in S.U. since 1941 • Winter 1941—stopped short of Moscow and Leningrad • Summer 1942—Hitler focused his attention on the oil fields in Caucasus Mts. and Stalingrad • The Russians harvested their fields and burnt their own buildings to keep the Germans from being successful • The Luftwaffe bombed Stalingrad while soldiers fought hand-to-hand combat • The Germans had taken 9/10 of the city by September Battle of Stalingrad • Another winter came—Soviets took this opportunity to roll fresh tanks in for a massive counterattack • They cut off German supply lines and surrounded the city • Hitler ordered the Germans to stay and fight • Winter turned Stalingrad into a frozen wasteland and the fighting continued • January 31, 1943—the German commander surrendered and two days later his troops did too Battle of Stalingrad • In defending Stalingrad, the Russians lost 1,100,000 soldiers • The battle marked a turning point in the war • From that point on, the Soviets moved westward toward Germany North African Front • While Stalingrad was being bombarded, the U.S. and Britain launched Operation Torch • The Allies, commanded by Dwight D. Eisenhower, invaded Axis controlled North Africa • In November 1942, 107,000 Allied troops landed in Casablanca, Oran, and Algiers • They sped eastward chasing General Erwin Rommel through the desert • He surrendered in May 1943 Italian Campaign • Before Africa was won, the Allied powers met at Casablanca and agreed to accept the unconditional surrender of the Axis powers • They also decided their next attack would come on the Italian Peninsula • In summer 1943, Sicily fell quickly • Stunned by the collapse of their army, the Italian government forced Mussolini to resign • July 25, 1943—Mussolini was stripped of his power and arrested • Italy was not a threat anymore Heroes of War • The Tuskegee Airmen registered their first victory at Sicily • They won two Distinguished Unit Citations for their outstanding aerial combat against the Luftwaffe • The 92nd Infantry “Buffaloes,” in just 7 months of combat, won 7 Legion of Merit awards, 65 Silver Stars, and 162 Bronze Stars for courage under fire Heroes of War • 17 Mexican Americans were awarded the Medal of Honor • All Mexican-American unit--Company E of the 141st Regiment, 36th division became one of the most decorated of the war • The 100th Battalion, consisting of 1300 Hawaiian Nisei became known as the Purple Heart Battalion • Later they formed the all-Nisei 442nd Regimental Combat Team and became the most decorated unit in U.S. History D-Day • June 6, 1944—Operation Overlord • Turning point of the Western Front • 3 million Allied soldiers stormed the beaches of Normandy • This would be the largest land-air-sea invasion in army history • German retaliation was brutal, particularly at Omaha beach The Allies Gain Ground • Despite heavy casualties, the Allies held the beachheads • After 7 days, they held an 80 mile strip of land • After a month, they had landed millions of soldiers, 567,000 tons of supplies, and 170,000 vehicles in France • Gen. Omar Bradley unleashed massive air and land bombardment at St. Lo providing a gap in German defenses • Gen. George Patton could now advance The Allies Gain Ground • On August 23, Patton reached the Seine River south of Paris • Two days later Paris was liberated from a 4 year German occupation • By September 1944, the Allies had freed France, Belgium and Luxembourg • The good news helped elect Roosevelt to his fourth term with Harry Truman as his V.P. Battle of the Bulge • In October 1944, Americans captured their first German town, Aachen • Hitler responded with a desperate last-gasp offensive • He ordered his troops to break through the Allied lines and to recapture the Belgian port of Antwerp • December 16, eight German tank divisions broke through weak American defenses • Tanks drove 60 miles into Allied territory creating a bulge in the lines that gave the desperate offensive its name, the Battle of the Bulge Battle of the Bulge • The Germans captured 120 GI’s and mowed them down with machine guns • The battle raged for a month • The Germans lost ground and 120,000 troops, 600 tanks, and 1600 planes • From that point on, the Nazis could do little but retreat The Pacific Front American Strategy • Following the liberation of Europe (D-Day), America set its eye toward the Pacific • Due to Japan’s strategy of “fight to the death”, America formed an “Island Hopping” strategy • Formed in order to get closer to Japan • For the most part this strategy worked Midway • Midway: – Turning point on the Pacific Front – Major Naval battle took place Jun 4-7, 1942 – The Japanese plan was to lure America's few remaining carriers into a trap and sink them.[6] The Japanese also intended to occupy Midway Atoll to extend their defensive perimeter. This operation was considered preparatory for an invasion of Hawaii. – Put a stop to Japan’s advance toward Hawaii Iwo Jima • February-March 1945 • The Marine invasion was charged with the mission of capturing the airfields on the island • Once the bases were secured, they could then be of use in the impending invasion of the Japanese mainland. • One of the first objectives after landing on the beachhead was the taking of Mount Suribachi • Even after Iwo Jima was declared secured, about three thousand Japanese soldiers were left alive in the island's caves and tunnels. • Eventually most surrendered and were surprised by many Americans’ compassion Okinawa • March-June 1945 • was the largest amphibious assault in the Pacific Theater • The battle has been referred to as the "Typhoon of Steel“ • The battle has one of the highest casualties • Okinawa would serve as a springboard for the planned invasion of the mainland islands • Japan surrendered before an invasion took place Surrender and Liberation Liberation of the Death Camps • Meanwhile, Allied troops pressed eastward into the German heartland, and the Soviet army pushed westward across Poland toward Berlin • Soviet troops were the first to enter a death camp • The German troopers worked to bury and burn all evidence of their crimes • The Soviets arrived to find a thousand starving prisoners, the largest crematory in the world, and a store house filled with 800,000 shoes • Other death camps were in similar conditions Unconditional Surrender • April 25, 1945, the Soviet army had stormed Berlin • As shells burst overhead, the city panicked • Soldiers in hiding ran out in the streets and were shot on the spot or hanged from the nearest tree • On their chests they had placards reading “We betrayed the Fuhrer (leader)” Unconditional Surrender • In his underground headquarters in Berlin, Hitler prepared for the end • On April 29, he married his long time companion, Eva Bratun • The same day, he wrote out his last address to the German people • He blamed the Jews for starting the war and his Generals for losing it • The next day, Hitler shot himself, and Eva drank poison • The two bodies were dragged out and burned in the street Unconditional Surrender • A week after Hitler’s death, Eisenhower accepted the unconditional surrender of the Third Reich • May 8, 1945—the Allies celebrated V-E-Day— Victory in Europe Roosevelt’s Death • Roosevelt did not live to see V-E Day • He died April 12, 1945, while posing for a portrait in Warm Springs, Georgia • The President had a stroke and died • That night, V.P. Harry S. Truman was sworn in as the 33rd president Ending War in the Pacific • War still waged between Japan and the U.S. • Truman was given two choices: – Send in troops to fight to the death against Japanese soldiers – Use a new weapon to end the war (Atomic Bombs) • Not wanting to lose so many lives, Truman chose to use the weapons created from the Manhattan Project Ending War in the Pacific • Manhattan Project: – The project to develop the first nuclear bomb – Developed between Canada, United Kingdom, and U.S. – J. Robert Oppenheimer took nuclear research on the fast track Potsdam Conference • Potsdam Conference—Germany – July 11, 1945 – Allied leaders met and agreed upon the unconditional surrender of Germany and Japan—specifically stating “the alternative for Japan is prompt and utter destruction” if they did not surrender (this in part to their destruction of Pearl Harbor) Atom Bomb • Japan refused to accept the terms of the Potsdam Conference • Truman ordered the dropping of two atomic bombs • The first on August 6, 1945 “Little Boy” was dropped on Hiroshima • Japan did not surrender • The second on August 9, 1945 “Big Boy” was dropped on Nagasaki A World without War • In order to maintain peace: – The Allies formed the United Nations – Decolonization began taking place in many parts of the world – Germany’s lands were divided up—even Berlin, the capital of Germany, was split into 4 between the Allies • Unfortunately, peace would not last