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War and Revolution
Expansion East
• Russia expanded east
• Came into conflict with another
imperial power—Japan
• At same time, revolution brewing
Growing Unrest
• Defeat shocked many Russians, added
to unrest
• One group calling for change,
Marxists—followed communist
theories of Karl Marx
War With Japan
• Early 1900s, Japan building empire,
viewed Russia as threat
• 1904, Japanese forces attacked,
defeated Russia in Russo-Japanese
War
Marxist Ideas
• Wanted to create socialist republic—
no private property, state to own,
distribute goods
• 1902, Vladimir Lenin called for
revolution to overthrow czar
The Revolution of 1905
• 1905, many Russians ready to rebel against czar
• January 22, Orthodox priest, Father Gapon, brought petition to czar at Winter
Palace, listing number of demands
• Troops fired at group; hundreds died; day known as Bloody Sunday
Revolution Begins
• Bloody Sunday inspired many sectors of society to rise up against czar; rebellions
broke out, czar’s strict rules disobeyed
• Workers went on strike, students protested in streets
• Czar promised reform, but did not follow through
• Massive strike in October; 2 million workers protested in streets
The October Manifesto
In response to the rebellions and strikes, Nicholas II issued the October Manifesto,
an official promise for reform and a more democratic government.
Provisions
• Manifesto promised
constitution
• Individual liberties to
all, including freedom
of speech, assembly
• Many gained right to
vote
Duma
• Voters would elect
representatives to the
Duma, assembly to
approve all laws
• Czar continue to rule,
but not pass laws
without approval of
Duma
End Revolution
• Nicholas II hoped
Manifesto would end
revolution
• Did not achieve balance
between own power,
democracy
• People still wanted
reform
Cause and Effect
What were some causes of the Russian
Revolution of 1905?
Answer(s): growing unrest, pogroms, crack down on
revolutionary movements, defeat in Russo-Japanese
War led to discontent, Bloody Sunday inspired
rebellions against czar
Revolution in Russia
Russia and World War I
The Years Before the War
• Russia a troubled nation
• Czar Nicholas II had promised reform
after 1905 revolution, but delivered
little real change
Bolshevik Plan
• Adaptation of Marxist ideas of
overthrow of capitalism
• Wanted elite group to keep much of
power over Russia
• Bolsheviks sought to change life
through revolution, wanted to
overthrow czar
• As Russia’s problems grew more
serious, Bolsheviks gained more
followers
• Led by Lenin, wanted proletariat to
rule Russia as socialist country
• Czar Nicholas hoped World War I
would cause people to rally to his
leadership
Russia in World War I
At the start of the war, Russia had an enormous army of some 6 million soldiers.
Preparations for War
On the Battlefield
• Outbreak of fighting caused
patriotism, rush to join military
• Many Russian officers advanced on
connections, not ability
• Otherwise Russia ill-prepared for war
• Some initial successes on battlefield
– Factories unable to produce
supplies quickly
• Losses soon outnumbered victories
– Transportation system weak
– Equipment outdated
• Millions of Russian soldiers
wounded, killed during early battles
Conditions Grow Worse
Czar Nicholas II took personal command of forces, 1915
• Move made little sense since he knew little of military matters
• Czar’s fate became linked with fate of Russian armed forces
• Bad situation grew worse under Czar’s command
Russian army seemed doomed
• Central Powers were able to stop Russian offensive
• Destroyed Russian soldiers’ faith in leadership
• Army had little strength, even less confidence
Conditions in Russia worse than on battlefield
• Food, goods scarce; peasants grew desperate
• Unpopular Czarina relied on Grigory Rasputin, viewed as corrupt, immoral
• Shaky support for Russian monarchy dipped even lower
Find the Main Idea
How did World War I affect Russia?
Answer(s): poor economic conditions, worker strikes,
unpopular czar
The Russian Revolution
By the end of 1916, Russia was once again on the edge of a revolution. As the new
year began and conditions in Russia continued to worsen, the Russian people clearly
wanted a change.
Revolution Begins
Czar Nicholas II
• Citizens protested in
streets of Petrograd,
March 8, 1917
• Ordered legislature to
disband
• Police, soldiers
refused to shoot
rioters
• Citizens, government,
military refused to
obey Czar
• Government was
helpless
• Forced to abdicate,
March 15, 1917
• His order defied
Calendar Change
• March revolution
known as February
Revolution
• Russian calendar at
time 13 days behind
• New calendar
adopted, 1918
The Russian Revolution
Provisional Government
Bolsheviks
• Duma established temporary
government
• Led opposition to Kerensky’s
provisional government
• Led by Aleksandr Kerensky
• Wanted fundamental change in
government and society
• Many unhappy with new leadership
• Planned Marxist revolution
Bolshevism
• Abolish private property
• Enforce social equality
• Later known as Marxism-Leninism
Vladimir Lenin
• Bolshevik leader forced to live outside
Russia
• Returned, April 1917
• Germany hoped Lenin would weaken
Russian war effort
The Bolshevik Revolution
Kerensky’s final offensive
• Kerensky ordered final military offensive against Central Powers along Eastern
Front, mid-1917
• Drive failed and led to widespread rebellion in Russian army
• Weakened Russian army collapsed
Bolshevik takeover
• Conditions ideal for Lenin
• Armed Bolshevik factory workers, Red
Guard, attacked provisional
government, November 1917
• Known as October Revolution
• Kerensky’s government collapsed after
nearly bloodless struggle
Lenin became leader
• Established radical Communist
program
• Made private ownership of land illegal
• Land given to peasants
• Control of factories given to workers
Summarize
What were the main events of the Russian
Revolution?
Answer(s): the February Revolution and the Bolshevik
Revolution
After the Revolution
Lenin sought to end Russian involvement in World
War I
• Sent Leon Trotsky to negotiate peace with Central Powers
• Russia’s army virtually powerless
• Trotsky had to accept agreement harsh on Russia
• Russia gained peace, gave up large parts of empire
Reaction to Treaty
• Bolsheviks’ acceptance of peace treaty angered many Russians
• Bolsheviks’ opponents organized the White Army
• White Army included army leaders, political opponents, wealthy Russians opposed
to Communist system
Civil War
• White Army received military help from France, U.S.
• Civil War raged for 3 years between Lenin’s Red Army and White Army
• Millions of Russians died in fighting, famines
• Bolsheviks finally triumphed, late 1920
New Economic Policy
Collapsing economy
• Brought on by civil war, pushed Russia to edge of total ruin
• Peasants, workers especially hard hit
• Lenin introduced New Economic Policy, 1921
Key points
• New Economic Policy permitted some capitalist activity
• Peasants could sell food at profit
• Tried to encourage badly needed food production
The Soviet Union
• Russia reunited with several neighboring lands, became Union of Soviet Socialist
Republics, dominated by Communist leadership
• Lenin’s death in 1924 led to struggle for control of Soviet Union
Sequence
What events took place after the Russian
Revolution?
Answer(s): The Bolsheviks formed the Red Army which
fought against the White Army. The White Army was
made up of army leaders, political opponents of the
Bolsheviks, and wealthy Russians.
Stalin’s Soviet Union
Communism under Stalin
• Soviet leader Vladimir Lenin died shortly after Communist Soviet Union formed,
1924
• Joseph Stalin became new Soviet leader after struggle for power
Different Approach
• Karl Marx predicted state would wither away under communism
• Stalin took different approach, worked to return Soviet Union to totalitarian state,
controlling all Soviet life
The Five-Year Plans
• Major part of Stalin’s plan to strengthen communism, modernization of economy
• First Five-Year Plan began 1928, factories and mines had production goals
Stalin’s Soviet Union
5-Year Plans reflected Soviet system of central planning
• Government makes major decisions about production of goods
• Differs from capitalist economic system, where market forces
are major influences on production
• Plans did lead to increases in Soviet industrial output
• During first two Five-Year Plans, oil production doubled, coal
and steel production quadrupled
• Demands on Soviet workers were high
Stalin’s Soviet Union
Political Purges
• Stalin, absolute power, but feared people plotting against him
• Began campaign called Great Purge, to get rid of people, things undesirable
• During Great Purge, thousands executed, sent to the Gulag
Totalitarian Rule
• Stalin’s regime dominated Soviet life
• Children encouraged to join youth organizations, taught attitudes, beliefs
• Religion discouraged, churches closed
Cult of Personality
• Portraits of Stalin decorated public places, creating heroic, idealized image
• Streets, towns renaming in Stalin’s honor, created cult of personality
• By ruthlessly removing opposition, Stalin gained stranglehold over society
Collectivization and Famine
Increase Farm Input
• Stalin believed millions of small,
individually owned Soviet farms would
be more productive if combined into
larger, mechanized farms
• Combining small farms called
collectivization
• Stalin tried to take land back given to
peasants after Russian Revolution
Peasant Reaction
• Peasants resisted, Stalin responded
violently
• Executed thousands, sent more to
Siberian system of labor camps, called
the Gulag
• Resistance continued, particularly in
the Ukraine
• Stalin refused to send food during
1932 famine; millions starved to death
Summarize
How did Stalin use fear and violence to rule the
Soviet Union?
Answer(s): executed those who resisted him; sent
opponents to Siberia to work in labor camps
A Secret Deal with Stalin
• Germany and Soviet Union on opposing sides in Spanish Civil War
– No direct conflict
– Axis Powers united against Soviet Union
– Soviet leader Joseph Stalin threatened by German expansion
• France and Britain discuss possible alliance with Soviet Union
– Stalin did not trust British or French
– In secret negotiations with Germans
• German-Soviet Nonaggression Pact
– Each side agreed not to attack the other; allowed further German
aggression in Europe
– Secret section divided up territory in Eastern Europe
• News shocked British and French; Hitler definitely on the march
A Turning Point in the Soviet Union
• 1941 German invasion halted with winter
• German equipment failed in bitter cold
• Poorly equipped troops suffered greatly
Leningrad
• Citizens under siege in Hitler’s attempt to force a surrender
• Winter of 1941—1942, thousands starved to death daily
• Siege of Leningrad cost 1 million civilian lives
Battle of Stalingrad
In the spring of 1942, Hitler ordered renewed assaults on the
Soviet Union. He assembled troops from Italy, Romania, and
Hungary. Even with fuel shortages, Axis forces fought well
initially.
On the Volga River
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•
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Germans poised to take Stalingrad
Key industrial city for Soviets
Factories supplied Soviet armies
Ports shipped grain, oil, and other products throughout
country
Brutal battle
•City bombed into rubble;
German troops moved in
•Hold city at all costs
•Georgy Zhukov led Soviet
counterattack
•Axis soldiers with no food or
ammunition
•Hitler—“Surrender is
forbidden”
Final victory
• German officers
surrendered early February
1943
• 1 million Soviet dead
• Crushing defeat for Hitler;
once invincible German
army in retreat
• Battle of Stalingrad turning
point in war
Summarize
Why was the Battle of Stalingrad a
turning point?
Answer(s): The German army had seemed invincible,
but after failing to take Stalingrad, it was now
retreating to the west.
Planning for the Future
July 1941
• Allied leaders planned for years for the of war
• Churchill and Roosevelt met to discuss even before U.S. entered war
Atlantic Charter
• Joint declaration of Churchill and
Roosevelt
• Outlined purpose of war
• Sought no territorial gains
• All nations could choose their own
government
• Work for mutual prosperity
Tehran Conference
• December 1943
• Roosevelt, Churchill, and Stalin
• Agreed on schedule for D-Day invasion
• Would work together in peace after
the war
Yalta Conference
• Held in Soviet territory in early 1945; Allies on brink of military victory
• Primary goal to reach agreement on postwar Europe
• Roosevelt, Stalin, and Churchill agreed on plans for Germany
• Stalin got his way with Polish territory, made promises
United Nations
• Roosevelt got Stalin to agree to join fight against Japan once war in Europe over
• USSR would join new world organization—United Nations
• Meant to encourage international cooperation and prevent war
• June 1945 charter signed with five major Allies as Security Council
Potsdam Conference
July 1945
Three sides
• Small German city location for
Potsdam Conference
• Soviet Union, Britain, and United
States
• Growing ill will between Soviet Union
and other Allies
• Discussed many issues but had
difficulty reaching agreement
Closing months
• American and British leaders worried
about Stalin’s intentions
• Concerned about spread of
communism, growth of Soviet
influence
Stalin
• Soon broke his promises
• Did not respect democracies in Eastern
Europe
• Another struggle beginning
Eastern Europe
Beyond Germany
• Allies agreed on Germany, what to do with rest of Europe more difficult
• Even before war ended, major Allied powers in conflict over Eastern Europe
• Eastern Europe bordered Soviet Union, was occupied by Soviet forces
Buffer Zone
• Soviet leaders had been invaded by Germany in both wars
• Wanted buffer zone of friendly governments to guard against another attack
• Stalin promised to respect Eastern Europeans’ right to choose governments
Growing Tensions
• American, British leaders believed Stalin planned to establish pro-Soviet Communist
governments throughout Eastern Europe and beyond
• Growing tensions between Allies about to lead to another conflict
The Conflict Worsens
The relationship between the Soviet Union and the Western nations continued to
worsen after the war. Soon the United States and the Soviet Union entered an era of
tension and hostility, which became known as the Cold War.
The Struggle Begins
• Cold War more than military rivalry
• Struggle for power, control between
two nations with very different
approaches
• Conflict between communism,
capitalist democracy
Pro-Soviet Governments
• Backed by Soviet troops, pro-Soviet
Communist governments established
in Eastern Europe
• Only Yugoslavia avoided Soviet
domination, although it was led by
Communist dictator
As communism spread throughout Eastern Europe, tension between the Soviet Union
and the western democracies continued to grow.
More Tension
Another Possible War
• Tension worsened by Soviet failure to
remove troops from northern Iran
• January 1946, President Truman
warned “Another war is in the
making.”
• February 1946, Stalin stated publicly
he believed war between East, West
bound to happen
Iron Curtain
• March 1946, former British Prime
Minister Winston Churchill gave
speech in U.S.
• Churchill used image of iron curtain to
describe the division of Europe as
result of Soviet actions
• Said this was serious threat to peace
The West Resists
The democratic nations of the West soon faced a test of their resolve to contain the
Communist East.
The Truman Doctrine
• Early 1947, Soviet backed
Communists threatened
governments of Greece, Turkey
• President Truman announced
Truman Doctrine—pledge to
provide economic, military aid to
oppose spread of communism
• Congress agreed to send aid to
Greece, Turkey
The Marshall Plan
• Because of post-war economies,
Truman believed more European
countries might turn to
communism
• U.S. launched massive program of
economic aid
• Marshall Plan provided $13 billion
for rebuilding Europe
• Plan helped Western Europe make
rapid recovery from war, preserved
political stability
Summarize
How did conflict between East and West worsen
after World War II?
Answer(s): Communism spread to most of Eastern
Europe, the Soviet Union would not withdraw troops
from Iran, the West resists with Truman Doctrine, aid
to Turkey and Greece
Superpower Rivalries
Superpower Rivalries
Main Idea
As the Cold War continued, the world’s two superpowers—the Soviet
Union and the United States—competed for power and influence
around the world.
Reading Focus
• How did the arms race begin in the 1950s and early 1960s?
• How did the Cold War contribute to conflict around the world?
• How did the superpowers attempt to achieve arms control during
the Cold War?
The Arms Race Begins
During the 1950s and early 1960s nuclear war seemed to draw ever closer as the
Soviet Union and the United States raced to develop powerful new weapons. This
rivalry between the world’s two superpowers became increasingly tense—and
dangerous.
The Nuclear Arms Race
Hydrogen Bomb
• 1949, Soviets successfully tested
atomic bomb
• Atomic bombs used energy created by
splitting atoms
• Great military advantage of U.S. over
Soviet Union gone
• Nuclear fusion—larger explosion
• U.S. sought to develop even more
powerful weapons
• 1952, U.S. tested first fusion-powered
hydrogen bomb, vaporizing island on
which tested
The U.S. technological advantage was short-lived. Less than one year later the Soviets
tested their own hydrogen bomb.
Change in Tactics
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Both sides forced to change military tactics
Could no longer rely on conventional forces, like troops, tanks
U.S., Soviets increased stockpiles of nuclear weapons
Nuclear weapons central to deterrence
Strategy of Deterrence
• Deterrence, development of or maintenance of military power to prevent attack
• Two superpowers locked in arms race to gain advantage in weapons
• U.S. had more weapons, but nuclear attack by either side would lead to terrible
destruction
Soviet Union Launches Sputnik
In October 1957 the arms race took another leap forward with the Soviet Union’s
successful launch of Sputnik.
Sputnik
Public Fears
• Sputnik, history’s first artificial
satellite—object orbiting earth
• Growing threat of nuclear war
• Soviet military technology now
feared to be in the lead
• Built bomb shelters to help protect
from nuclear explosion
• U.S. government established
National Aeronautics and Space
Administration, NASA
• Schools led air-raid drills to
prepare for possible Soviet attack
• Agency would eventually return
United States to forefront of space
research
• Significant impact on people
• Books, movies, comic books had
plots centered on dangers of
radiation, nuclear war
Red Scare
Cold War led to so-called Red Scare in U.S.
• Many Americans feared possible Communist influence in U.S.
government
• U.S. Senator Joseph McCarthy
– Prompted congressional committee in effort to expose
Communists in American film industry, government, late
1940s, early 1950s
– Accused many innocent people of Communist activities
Identify Supporting Details
How did the arms race begin?
Answer(s): development of atomic and hydrogen
bombs
Cold War Around the World
The Korean War showed that Cold War rivalry could lead to conflict far from the
United States or the Soviet Union. During the Cold War, this rivalry led to struggles
for influence in countries around the world.
War in Southeast Asia
• End World War II,
France tried to
reestablish control over
Southeast Asia
• Communist rebels in
Vietnam fought back,
forcing French to give
up control
Vietnam Divided
• Peace agreement
temporarily divided
Vietnam in half
• Communists controlled
North, anti-Communist
regime ruled South
American Support
• U.S. supported South
Vietnam, when
revolution broke out
sent military troops
• Eventually North
Vietnamese fought
alongside rebels
• War dragged on until
mid–1970s
Another Crisis in Berlin
Crossing Over
• After Communist East Germany, democratic West Germany formed in 1949, tens of
thousands of East Germans crossed from East to West Berlin
• Some wanted to live in free nation, other simply wanted to find work
Berlin Wall
• By 1961, up to 1,000 per day made daily trip between homes in East Germany, jobs
in West Berlin
• To stop exodus, East Germany erected barrier between two halves of city
Communist Brutality
• Barrier, Berlin Wall, heavily guarded
• Anyone attempting to cross risked being shot by East German guards
• Succeeded in slowing flight of East Germans, became symbol of Communist system
brutality
Communism in Cuba
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1959, rebels led by Fidel Castro overthrew Cuba’s dictator
Installed Communist government
Centrally planned economy, close ties with Soviets
Actions worried United States; Cuba near Florida coast
Cuba’s alliance with Soviet Union brought Cold War close to American territory
Bay of Pigs
• U.S. government secretly trained
invasion force to overthrow Castro
• April 1961, force came ashore at
Cuba’s Bay of Pigs
• American officials believed invasion
would start uprising against Castro
• Instead invaders quickly defeated
Cuban Missile Crisis
• 1962, Cuban missile crisis, two week
confrontation between U.S., Soviet
Union over installation of nuclear
missiles in Cuba
• After standoff missiles removed; U.S.
agreed to remove missiles from
Turkey, not attack Cuba
Other Cold War Conflicts
Suez Canal
• 1956, Egypt angered West by taking over Suez Canal
• Britain, France, Israel attacked Egypt; Soviet Union would take Egypt’s side
• U.S. demanded Western allies halt attack; conflict came to end
The Congo
• Ending of European colonial rule in Africa brought superpower involvement
• 1960 Belgium ended control of Congo; U.S., other western countries supported
military dictator Joseph Mobutu as good ally against Soviet Union
Angola
• 1975, Angola won independence from Portugal
• U.S., Soviet Union supported opposing sides in ensuing civil war which lasted until
1991
The Americas
Central and South America
Nonaligned Nations
• U.S. supported efforts to overthrow
regimes allied with Soviet Union in
Central, South America
• Many countries sought to avoid being
caught up in worldwide rivalry
between superpowers
• 1970s, U.S. secretly supported
opposition to Chile’s socialist leader
Salvador Allende, who was
overthrown in 1973
• Beginning in 1950s, number of nations
refused to support either side
• 1983, U.S. forces ousted Communist
regime on island of Grenada
• So-called nonaligned nations sought
to use combined strength to promote
interests of poorer countries
Find the Main Idea
How did the Cold War play out around the
world?
Answer(s): Communism was spreading to many other
countries, and the United States became involved in an
attempt to stop its spread around the world.
Attempts at Arms Control
While relations between East and West were largely hostile throughout the Cold
War, some attempts at cooperation were made.
Early Arms Control
• Eisenhower proposed open skies
treaty with Soviet Union
• Each side could fly over other’s
territory, gather accurate weapons
information
• With accurate information, neither
side would have to imagine worst
about enemy
• Soviets rejected proposal
Test Ban Treaty
• Soviet leaders proposed total nuclear
disarmament
• United States rejected idea
• President Kennedy favored limited
nuclear weapons tests
• Cuban missile crisis convinced both
sides important to make arms
control progress
• 1963 U.S., Soviets agreed on Test Ban
Treaty
SALT I and SALT II
SALT I
• U.S. President Richard Nixon sought détente, reduced tension between
superpowers; started negotiations called Strategic Arms Limitations Talks
• SALT I talks led to agreements limiting nuclear weapons held by each side
ABM Treaty
• Also led to Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, preventing development of weapons
designed to shoot down nuclear missiles
• Meant to ensure each side remained vulnerable to other’s nuclear weapons
SALT II
• Vulnerability important element of principle of deterrence
• Two sides began new round of talks called SALT II
• Talks resulted in arms control treaty in 1979: never ratified by U.S. Senate
The 1980s
Reagan Presidency
Arms Reduction Talks
• Reagan took aggressive position
against Soviet Union
• Idea of system seemed to violate spirit
of ABM Treaty
• Wanted to develop missile defense
system
• Began arms reduction talks with Soviet
leader Gorbachev
INF Treaty
• 1988, two countries ratified
Intermediate-Range Nuclear Forces
(INF) Treaty
• Called for elimination of certain types
of missiles
Improving Relations
• After many years of conflict,
relationship between U.S., Soviet
Union began to improve
Sequence
What were the major arms control agreements
negotiated by the Soviet Union and the United
States?
Answer(s): Test Ban Treaty, SALT I, reducing the
number of nuclear weapons each side held, ABM
Treaty that prevented the development of weapons
that shoot down nuclear missiles
Eastern Europe and the Soviet Union
The challenges facing the Soviet Union and the Eastern European nations under its
control were even more overwhelming than those facing Western Europe. Like
Western Europe, however, the region soon began to recover.
The Postwar Soviet Union
• Tens of millions killed in war
• Heavy damage to cities and farms
• Soviet dictator Joseph Stalin
determined to rebuild quickly
• Soviet Union had command economy
Command Economy
• Government controls all economic
decisions
• Goods at prewar levels by 1953
• Nikita Krushchev became leader of
Soviet Union, undertook effort to “deStalinize” Soviet Union
Stalin-era economic and political restrictions loosened, but country remained
Communist. Individual freedoms limited, still hostile stance against the West.
Revolts in Eastern Europe
Many Changes
• Changes after Stalin’s death led
Eastern Europeans to hope for end of
Soviet domination
• Soviet leaders made it clear reforms
were limited
• Used or threatened force to crush
public protests in many countries,
assert control
• Troops put down revolts in East
Germany (1953), Poland (1956),
Hungary (1956), Czechoslovakia (1968)
Solidarity
• Soviet crackdowns did not end
protests in Eastern Europe
• 1980, Polish electrician Lech Walesa
led hundreds of thousands of workers
in anti-government protest
movement, called Solidarity
• Poland’s Communist government used
martial law to suppress movement,
could not destroy it
Glasnost and Perestroika
Soviet Economy Faltered
• Soviet economy performed well after war, began to falter in 1960s
• By 1980s, Soviet Union faced crisis; command economy system inefficient
• Production goals with little regard for wants, needs of marketplace
Gorbachev
• Goals stressed heavy industry, neglecting needed consumer goods
• As result most sectors of Soviet economy ceased to grow
• 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev came to power, saw need for change
New Concepts
• Proposed two radical concepts—glasnost, perestroika
• Glasnost, “openness,” willingness to discuss Soviet problems openly
• Perestroika, “restructuring,” reform of Soviet economic, political system
Reforms
• Gorbachev pushed through number of major reforms
• Aggressively pursued arms control agreements with U.S.
• Also reduced central planning of Soviet economy, introduced some free market
mechanisms
Policy Reversal
• Gorbachev knew Soviet Union could not afford to prop up Communist governments
of Eastern Europe
• Began to pull Soviet troops out of region, urged local leaders to adopt reforms
• Reversed decades of Soviet policy in Eastern Europe
Revolutions in Eastern Europe
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Eastern Europeans longed for freedom, did not wait for reform
1989, revolution spread; citizens overthrew Soviet-backed leaders
Gorbachev, no longer wanting to control Eastern Europe, did not interfere
Most revolutions were peaceful
Solidarity forced elections in Poland; Lech Walesa elected president
Czechoslovakia, Romania
• Czechoslovakia had Velvet
Revolution—so called because it was
peaceful
• Pushed communists out of power
• Only bloodshed in Romania, where
some military forces remained loyal to
Communist dictator
East Germany
• Most dramatic changes took place in
East Germany
• Berlin Wall opened November 1989
• Strongest symbol of Soviet repression,
Cold War, finally fell
• Less than year later, East, West
Germany reunified as single nation
Summarize
What changes took place in the Soviet Union
and Eastern Europe after
World War II?
Answer(s): Khrushchev tried to "de-Stalinize" and
loosen political restrictions, revolts after Stalin's death,
Solidarity, Gorbachev introduced reforms, glasnost and
perestroika
After the Cold War
The Breakup of the Soviet Union
The fall of the Berlin Wall and the collapse of Soviet-backed regimes in Eastern
Europe showed the dramatic crumbling of Soviet power.
Soviet Union Collapses
• Soviet Union consisted of 15 separate
republics
• Some had been independent nations
before World War II and long wanted
freedom
• 1990, Lithuania declared
independence; appeared other
republics planned same
• Not clear if Soviets had will, power to
stop movement
Government in Crisis
• August 1991, hard-line Communists
tried to end Gorbachev’s reforms in
coup
• Effort failed due to opposition of
Boris Yeltsin, leader of republic of
Russia
• Yeltsin favored more radical changes
than Gorbachev
• Did not want to see hard-liners take
over Soviet Union
Failed Coup
Gorbachev’s Power Gone
• Although coup failed, Gorbachev’s
power largely gone
• Republic after republic declared
independence
• By end of 1991, Soviet government
had ceased to function
End of Soviet Union
• Twelve republics united in loose
confederation, Commonwealth of
Independent States
• Mighty Soviet Union, once one to two
most powerful countries in world, no
longer existed
• Cold War finally over after more than
40 years of tension, conflict
Economic Change
• Soviet Union fell; communism ended in former Soviet republics
• In largest republic, Russia, Boris Yeltsin began campaign to alter economy’s basic
structure
• Goal to make economy function like capitalist system
More Freedom
• Yeltsin began to allow private ownership of businesses, land
• Business owners, workers able to take advantage of economic opportunities
• However, lost guarantee of government-backed job, other government supports
Mixed Results
Early results of Russia’s reforms mixed
• Some entrepreneurs prospered, most ordinary Russians did
not
• Prices rose sharply
– Many Russians could not afford to buys goods in stores
– Some questioned benefits of market reform
• Early 2000s, Russia rebounded somewhat from economic
crises; still, path from communism to capitalism not easy
Other Issues
Ethnic Unrest
• After Soviet Union fell, underlying issues in region bubbled to top
• Two were ethnic unrest, need for new governments
• One example of ethnic unrest took place in Chechnya, in Caucasus region
Chechnya
• Chechnya considered part of Russia
• When Chechens tried to gain independence from Russia, dispute led to bloody
fighting, insurgency that still affects region today
Azerbaijan
• Early 1990s, another example of ethnic conflict occurred when ethnic Armenian
minority sought to break away from country of Azerbaijan
• Tens of thousands died in fighting that followed
Challenging Transition
Transition from communism to new government
challenging for some former republics
• 2004, Ukraine held election
• Election had to be repeated amid widespread charges of
fraud
• Results of elections left Ukraine deeply divided
• Such transitions continue to trouble the region
Summarize
How and why did the Soviet Union break up?
Answer(s): Republics fought for freedom and
independence, Communist Party leaders tried to
overthrow the government and end Gorbachev's
reforms, and republics gained independence.
Europe after Communism
The collapse of the Iron Curtain brought new opportunities and new challenges to
Europe. The end of communism brought much economic change as well as new
threats to peace.
Yugoslavia
• Communist
governments with strict
control
• In Yugoslavia, control
helped suppress
tensions between
various ethnic, religious
groups living there
Nationalism
Bosnian Serbs
• Tensions began to
surface
• Conflict broke out
• Nationalism grew as
ethnic, religious
tensions increased
• Independence
• Serbia tried to prevent
breakup of Yugoslavia
• Bosnia and Herzegovina
at war
• Independence declared
in 1992
• Bosnian Serbs went to
war to stop
independence
War in Bosnia
• Serbs used policy of ethnic cleansing against Bosnian Muslims
• Ethnic cleansing means elimination of an ethnic group from society through killing
or forced emigration
• U.S.-led diplomatic efforts finally ended violence in Bosnia in 1995
Fighting in Kosovo
• Soon fighting began in Serbian province of Kosovo
• Serbs, ethnic Albanians fought over control of area
• 1999, NATO airplanes bombed Serbian targets to stop conflict
• NATO peacekeepers eventually maintained order there, although Kosovo remains
Serbian province today
Economic Change
Market Reforms
• End of communism brought mixed results for Eastern European economies
• Market reforms created new opportunities for many people
• Some started businesses; some got management, technical jobs
Strain on Western Europe
• Others fared less well; earnings not increasing for all workers
• High unemployment in some areas, forcing many to move to West
• Newcomers compete with longtime residents for jobs, resources
The European Union
• European Union (EU), single economic unit in competition with U.S.
• Many of newer members far poorer than older Western Europe members; some in
wealthier nations worry their economies will suffer
Summarize
How has Europe changed since the end of
communism?
Answer(s): High unemployment has led many Eastern
Europeans to move to Western Europe for jobs and
opportunities.