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Fundamentals of Information
Systems
Fourth Edition
Chapter 7
Knowledge Management and
Specialized Information Systems
Principles and Learning Objectives
• Knowledge management allows organizations to
share knowledge and experience among their
managers and employees
– Discuss the differences among data, information, and
knowledge
– Describe the role of the chief knowledge officer (CKO)
– List some of the tools and techniques used in
knowledge management
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Principles and Learning Objectives
(continued)
• Artificial intelligence systems form a broad and
diverse set of systems that can replicate human
decision making for certain types of well-defined
problems
– Define the term artificial intelligence and state the
objective of developing artificial intelligence systems
– List the characteristics of intelligent behavior and
compare the performance of natural and artificial
intelligence systems for each characteristic
– Identify the major components of the artificial
intelligence field and provide one example of each
type of system
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Principles and Learning Objectives
(continued)
• Expert systems can enable a novice to perform at
the level of an expert but must be developed and
maintained very carefully
– List the characteristics and basic components of
expert systems
– Identify at least three factors to consider in
evaluating the development of an expert system
– Outline and briefly explain the steps for developing
an expert system
– Identify the benefits associated with the use of
expert systems
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Principles and Learning Objectives
(continued)
• Virtual reality systems can reshape the interface
between people and information technology by
offering new ways to communicate information,
visualize processes, and express ideas creatively
– Define the term virtual reality and provide three
examples of virtual reality applications
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Principles and Learning Objectives
(continued)
• Specialized systems can help organizations and
individuals achieve their goals
– Discuss examples of specialized systems for
organizational and individual use
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Why Learn About Specialized
Information Systems?
• Knowledge management (KM) and specialized
information systems are used in many industries
• Examples
– Manager might use KM to correct a problem
– Automotive manager might use KM to oversee
robots
– Stock trader might use a neural network to uncover
patterns in stock prices
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Knowledge Management Systems
• Knowledge: awareness and understanding of a
set of information and the ways that information
can be made useful to support a specific task or
reach a decision
• Knowledge management system (KMS):
organized collection of people, procedures,
software, databases, and devices used to create,
store, share, and use the organization’s knowledge
and experience
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Overview of Knowledge Management
Systems
• KMS can involve different types of knowledge
– Explicit knowledge
• Objective
• Can be measured and documented in reports, papers,
and rules
– Tacit knowledge
• Hard to measure and document
• Typically not objective or formalized
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Data and Knowledge Management
Workers and Communities of Practice
• Personnel involved in a KMS include:
– Data workers: secretaries, administrative
assistants, bookkeepers, other data-entry personnel
– Knowledge workers: people who create, use, and
disseminate knowledge
• Examples: professionals in science, engineering, and
business; writers; researchers; educators; corporate
designers
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Data and Knowledge Management
Workers and Communities of Practice
(continued)
• Chief knowledge officer (CKO): top-level
executive who helps the organization use a KMS to
create, store, and use knowledge to achieve
organizational goals
• Communities of practice (COP): group of people
dedicated to a common discipline or practice, such
as open-source software, auditing, medicine, or
engineering
– Excel at obtaining, storing, sharing, and using
knowledge
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Obtaining, Storing, Sharing, and Using
Knowledge
• Obtaining, storing, sharing, and using knowledge is
the key to any KMS
• Knowledge workers often work in teams to create
or obtain knowledge
• Knowledge repository stores knowledge including
documents, reports, files, and databases
• Knowledge workers use collaborative work
software and group support systems to share
knowledge
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Obtaining, Storing, Sharing, and Using
Knowledge (continued)
Figure 7.3: Knowledge Management System
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Obtaining, Storing, Sharing, and Using
Knowledge (continued)
• Intranets and password-protected Internet sites
also provide ways to share knowledge
• Knowledge map points knowledge workers to
needed knowledge
• Organizations need to protect knowledge from
competitors, hackers, and others who shouldn’t
obtain the organization’s knowledge
• Patents, copyrights, trade secrets, Internet
firewalls, and other measures are used to protect
important knowledge
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Technology to Support Knowledge
Management
• Tools for capturing and using knowledge include:
– Data mining and business intelligence
– Enterprise resource planning tools, such as SAP
– Groupware
• Examples of specific KM products
– IBM’s Lotus Notes, Domino
– Microsoft’s Digital Dashboard, Web Store
Technology, Access Workflow Designer
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Technology to Support Knowledge
Management (continued)
Table 7.1: Additional Knowledge Management Organizations and
Resources
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An Overview of Artificial Intelligence
• Artificial intelligence (AI): ability of computers to
mimic or duplicate the functions of the human brain
• AI-based computer systems have many
applications in different fields, such as:
–
–
–
–
Medical diagnoses
Exploration for natural resources
Determining what is wrong with mechanical devices
Assisting in designing and developing other
computer systems
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Artificial Intelligence in Perspective
• Artificial intelligence systems: people,
procedures, hardware, software, data, and
knowledge needed to develop computer systems
and machines that demonstrate the characteristics
of intelligence
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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The Nature of Intelligence
• Learn from experience and apply knowledge
acquired from experience
– Example: computerized AI chess software
• Handle complex situations
• Solve problems when important information is
missing
• Determine what is important
• React quickly and correctly to a new situation
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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The Nature of Intelligence (continued)
• Understand visual images
– Perceptive system: approximates the way humans
hear, see, or feel objects
• Process and manipulate symbols
– On a limited basis with machine-vision hardware and
software
• Be creative and imaginative
– Example: writing short stories
• Use heuristics
– Obtaining good solutions (rather than the optimal)
through approximation
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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The Difference Between Natural and
Artificial Intelligence
Table 7.2: A Comparison of Natural and Artificial Intelligence
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The Major Branches of Artificial
Intelligence
Figure 7.5: A Conceptual Model of Artificial Intelligence
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Expert Systems
• Hardware and software that stores knowledge and
makes inferences, similar to a human expert
• Used in many business applications
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Robotics
• Mechanical or computer devices that perform tasks
requiring a high degree of precision or that are
tedious or hazardous for humans
• Contemporary robotics combines high-precision
machine capabilities with sophisticated controlling
software
• Many applications of robotics exist today
• Research into robots is continuing
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Robotics (continued)
Robots can be used in situations that are hazardous or inaccessible to
humans. The Rover was a remote-controlled robot used by NASA to
explore the surface of Mars.
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Vision Systems
• Hardware and software that permit computers to
capture, store, and manipulate visual images and
pictures
• Used by the U.S. Justice Department to perform
fingerprint analysis
• Can be used in identifying people based on facial
features
• Can be used with robots to give these machines
“sight”
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Natural Language Processing and
Voice Recognition
• Natural language processing: allows the
computer to understand and react to statements
and commands made in a “natural” language, such
as English
• Voice recognition involves converting sound waves
into words
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Natural Language Processing and
Voice Recognition (continued)
Dragon Systems’ Naturally Speaking 8 Essentials uses continuous voice
recognition, or natural speech, allowing the user to speak to the computer at a
normal pace without pausing between words. The spoken words are transcribed
immediately onto the computer screen. (Source: Courtesy of Nuance
Communications, Inc.)
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Learning Systems
• Combination of software and hardware that allows
the computer to change how it functions or reacts
to situations based on feedback it receives
• Learning systems software requires feedback on
the results of actions or decisions
• Feedback is used to alter what the system will do in
the future
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Neural Networks
• Computer system that can simulate the functioning
of a human brain
• Ability to retrieve information even if some of the
neural nodes fail
• Fast modification of stored data as a result of new
information
• Ability to discover relationships and trends in large
databases
• Ability to solve complex problems for which all the
information is not present
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Other Artificial Intelligence
Applications
• Genetic algorithm: an approach to solving large,
complex problems in which a number of related
operations or models change and evolve until the
best one emerges
• Intelligent agent: programs and a knowledge base
used to perform a specific task for a person, a
process, or another program
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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An Overview of Expert Systems
• Like human experts, computerized expert systems
use heuristics, or rules of thumb, to arrive at
conclusions or make suggestions
• Used in many fields for a variety of tasks, such as:
–
–
–
–
–
Designing new products and systems
Developing innovative insurance products
Increasing the quality of healthcare
Determining credit limits for credit cards
Determining the best fertilizer mix to use on certain
soils
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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An Overview of Expert Systems
(continued)
• Research conducted in AI during the past two
decades is resulting in expert systems that:
–
–
–
–
Explore new business possibilities
Increase overall profitability
Reduce costs
Provide superior service to customers and clients
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When to Use Expert Systems
• Develop an expert system if it can do any of the
following:
– Provide a high potential payoff or significantly reduce
downside risk
– Capture and preserve irreplaceable human expertise
– Solve a problem that is not easily solved using
traditional programming techniques
– Develop a system more consistent than human
experts
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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When to Use Expert Systems
(continued)
• Develop an expert system if it can do any of the
following (continued):
– Provide expertise needed at a number of locations at
the same time or in a hostile environment that is
dangerous to human health
– Provide expertise that is expensive or rare
– Develop a solution faster than human experts can
– Provide expertise needed for training and
development to share the wisdom and experience of
human experts with a large number of people
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Components of Expert Systems
Figure 7.8: Components of an Expert System
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Components of Expert Systems
(continued)
• Knowledge base: component of an expert system
that stores all relevant information, data, rules,
cases, and relationships used by the expert system
• Some tools and techniques for creating a
knowledge base are:
–
–
–
–
Assembling human experts
Using fuzzy logic: shades of gray; “fuzzy sets”
Using rules: IF-THEN statements
Using cases: modifying solutions to cases in
knowledge base
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Components of Expert Systems
(continued)
Figure 7.10: Rules for a Credit Application
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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The Inference Engine
• Seeks information and relationships from the
knowledge base and provides answers,
predictions, and suggestions the way a human
expert would
• Backward chaining
– Starting with conclusions and working backward to
supporting facts
• Forward chaining
– Starting with facts and working forward to solutions
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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The Explanation Facility
• Allows a user or decision maker to understand how
the expert system arrived at certain conclusions or
results
• Example: allow a doctor to determine the logic or
rationale of the diagnosis made by a medical
expert system
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The Knowledge Acquisition Facility
• Provides convenient and efficient means of
capturing and storing all the components of the
knowledge base
• Acts as an interface between experts and the
knowledge base
• Acquisition can be manual or a mixture of manual
and automated
• Knowledge base must be validated and updated
frequently
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The Knowledge Acquisition Facility
(continued)
Figure 7.11: Knowledge Acquisition Facility
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The User Interface
• Specialized user interface software is employed for
designing, creating, updating, and using expert
systems
• Main purpose of the user interface is to make the
development and use of an expert system easier
for users and decision makers
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Expert Systems Development
Figure 7.12: Steps in the Expert System Development Process
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Participants in Developing and Using
Expert Systems
• Domain expert: individual or group who has the
expertise or knowledge one is trying to capture in
the expert system
• Knowledge engineer: individual who has training
or experience in the design, development,
implementation, and maintenance of an expert
system
• Knowledge user: individual or group who uses
and benefits from the expert system
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Participants in Developing and Using
Expert Systems (continued)
Figure 7.13: Participants in Expert Systems Development and Use
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Expert Systems Development Tools
and Techniques
• Traditional programming languages
• Special programming languages
– LISP, PROLOG
• Expert system shells
– Expert system shell is a collection of software
packages and tools used to design, develop,
implement, and maintain expert systems
• Off-the-shelf expert system shells
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Expert Systems Development Tools
and Techniques (continued)
Figure 7.14: Expert Systems Development
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Applications of Expert Systems and
Artificial Intelligence
• Credit granting and loan analysis
• Stock picking
• Catching cheats and terrorists
– Gambling casinos
• Budgeting
– Prototype testing programs
• Games
– Crossword puzzles
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Applications of Expert System and
Artificial Intelligence (continued)
• Information management and retrieval
– Uses bots
• AI and expert systems embedded in products
– Antilock braking system, television
• Plant layout and manufacturing
• Hospitals and medical facilities
– Probability of contracting diseases, lab analysis,
home diagnosis, appointment scheduling
• Help desks and assistance
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Applications of Expert System and
Artificial Intelligence (continued)
• Employee performance evaluation
• Virus detection
– Uses neural network technology
• Repair and maintenance
– Telephone networks, aerospace equipment
• Shipping and marketing
• Warehouse optimization
– Restocking, location
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Virtual Reality
• Virtual reality system: enables one or more users
to move and react in a computer-simulated
environment
• Immersive virtual reality: user becomes fully
immersed in an artificial, three-dimensional world
that is completely generated by a computer
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Interface Devices
• Head-mounted display (HMD)
– Screens directed at each eye; position tracker
• CAVE
– Provides illusion of immersion through projection of
stereo images on floors and walls
• Haptic interface
– Relays sense of touch and other physical sensations
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Interface Devices (continued)
Military personnel train in an immersive CAVE system
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Forms of Virtual Reality
• Immersive virtual reality
• Mouse-controlled navigation through a threedimensional environment on a graphics monitor
• Stereo viewing from the monitor via stereo glasses
• Stereo projection systems
• Telepresence systems
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Virtual Reality Applications
• Experimental “gesture technology”: may have
military applications
• Medicine: anxiety disorders, pain reduction
• Education and training: anatomy, history, military
training
• Real estate marketing and tourism: virtual
walkthroughs
• Entertainment: CGI movies and games
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Other Specialized Systems
•
•
•
•
•
Segway: electric scooter
Computer pens
Special-purpose devices that help detect crime
Radio-frequency identification (RFID) tags
Systems used by the military: 3-D holograms
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Other Specialized Systems
(continued)
• Game theory: uses information systems to develop
competitive strategies
• Informatics: combines traditional fields with
technology
• Radio transceivers
• Microsoft’s Smart Personal Objects Technology
(SPOT): allows small devices to transmit data over
the air
• Special-purpose bar codes
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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Summary
• Knowledge management system (KMS): organized
collection of people, procedures, software,
databases and devices used to create, store,
share, and use the organization’s knowledge and
experience
• Communities of practice (COP): group of people
dedicated to a common discipline or practice, such
as open-source software, auditing, medicine, or
engineering
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
59
Summary (continued)
• Artificial intelligence (AI): ability of computers to
mimic or duplicate the functions of the human brain
• Artificial intelligence systems: people, procedures,
hardware, software, data, and knowledge needed
to develop computer systems and machines that
demonstrate the characteristics of intelligence
• Expert system: hardware and software that stores
knowledge and makes inferences, similar to a
human expert
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
60
Summary (continued)
• Robotics: mechanical or computer devices that
perform tasks requiring a high degree of precision
or that are tedious or hazardous for humans
• Vision systems: hardware and software that permit
computers to capture, store, and manipulate visual
images and pictures
• Natural language processing: allows the computer
to understand and react to statements and
commands made in a “natural” language, such as
English
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
61
Summary (continued)
• Learning systems: combination of software and
hardware that allows the computer to change how
it functions or reacts to situations based on
feedback it receives
• Neural network: computer system that can simulate
the functioning of a human brain
• Virtual reality system: enables one or more users to
move and react in a computer-simulated
environment
Fundamentals of Information Systems, Fourth Edition
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