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Transcript
Artificial Intelligence
Seyed Hashem Davarpanah
[email protected]
University of Science and Culture
Text Book


Illuminated Artificial Intelligence, Ben Coppin,
Jones and Barlett 2004
‫ عبدالرضا‬,‫هوش مصنوعی ترجمه سید هاشم داورپناه‬
‫میرزایی‬
Artificial Intelligence: A Modern Approach 3rd
edition By Stuart Russel, Peter Norvig
Grading
Midterm Exam
25%
Project or Presentation
15%
Homework
10%
Conference Paper (Extra)
10%
Journal Paper (Extra)
15%
Class Activities (Extra)
10%
Final Exam
50%
Contents
Introduction
Agents
Knowledge Representation
Problems and Search
Blind Search , Heuristic Search
Constraint satisfaction, Optimization Problems
Games
Game Tree,
Games of chance
Advanced Topics
Logic, Uncertainty and Imprecision
Planning, Machine Learning
What is intelligence?



Intelligence of Creatures
Intelligence of Non-Creatures
Intelligence of Human
Intelligence of Creatures

Ape can …



Dophin can…


Understand “language” & communicate with human
Dog can …



Use tool to get banana
Buy coke from vending machine
Recognize its master and his voice
Do a few jobs
Parrot can …

Do arithmetic
Intelligence of Creatures

Ants can …
Find their way home
 Communicate with one other
 Manage their society


Tree can …
Grow and do not collapse
 Adapt itself to the environment (cactus)


Migrant birds can …

Identify their direction
Intelligence of Non-Creatures






Blood
Heartbeat
Virus
Neuron
Rain
Do not seem to come from thinking with
knowledge or information consciously …
Intelligence of Human







Problem-Solving
Reasoning
Learning
Planning
Communicating
Perceiving
Acting
What is AI?
Intelligence: “ability to learn, understand and
think” (Oxford dictionary)
AI is the study of how to make computers
make things which at the moment people do
better.
Examples: Speech recognition, Smell, Face,
Object, Intuition, Inferencing, Learning new
skills, Decision making, Abstract thinking
‫‪Strong AI vs. Weak AI‬‬
‫‪‬‬
‫هوش مصنوعی قوی‬
‫‪‬‬
‫‪‬‬
‫مريدان هوش مصنوعي قوي بر اين عقيدهاند كه با اعمال يك برنامه‬
‫كامپيوتري با قدرت محاسباتي باال و با تأمين هوش كافي براي آن‪،‬‬
‫ميتوان كامپيوتري ساخت كه در ظاهر فكر ميكند و همان گونه كه يك‬
‫انسان هوشيار است‪ ،‬هوشيار ميباشد‪.‬‬
‫هوش مصنوعی ضعیف‬
‫‪ ‬از ديد هوش مصنوعي ضعيف‪ ،‬رفتار هوشمند ميتواند مدل شود و جهت‬
‫حل مسائل پيچيده مورد استفاده قرار گيرد‬
‫)‪ it is not necessary to mimic human (e.g. arithmetic‬‬
‫‪ it is not necessary to imitating birds in order to fly‬‬
‫‪ ‬تنها به اين دليل كه كامپيوترها رفتار هوشمندانه دارند نميتوان استناد كرد‬
‫كه همانند انسان هوشمند هستند‬
Definition of AI

Weak AI


Artificial intelligence is the study of systems that act
in a way that to any observer would appear to be
intelligent.
Strong AI

Artificial intelligence involves using methods based
on the intelligence behavior of humans and other
animals to solve complex problems.
‫اتاق چيني‬
‫‪‬‬
‫جان سيرل اتاق چيني را در مخالفت فلسفي با هوش مصنوعي قوي مطرح كرد‪.‬‬
‫يك مرد انگليسي زبان در يك اتاق قرار دارد‪ .‬او نه ميتواند با زبان چييني صحبت كند‪ ،‬نه‬
‫بخواند و نه بفهمد‪ .‬در داخل اتاق يكسري كارت وجود دارد‪ ،‬بر روي آنها يك سري عالمتهاي‬
‫چيني به همراه يكسري راهنمايي و دستورالعمل به زبان انگليسي نوشته شده است‪ .‬يك داستان‪ ،‬به‬
‫زبان چيني‪ ،‬از شكاف درب به داخل اتاق داده ميشود‪ .‬يكسري سؤاالت درباره آن نيز پرسيده‬
‫ميشود‪ .‬با دنبال كردن راهنماييهاي كه مرد در دست دارد او ميتواند جوابهايي را با استفاده از‬
‫سمبولهاي روي كارتها كه به زبان چيني ميباشند بسازد و آنها را از شكاف درب به‬
‫سؤالكننده پس دهد‪.‬‬
‫‪‬‬
‫استدالل سيرل يك استدالل ساده است‪ .‬مرد در اتاق‪ ،‬چيني نميفهمد‪ .‬قطعه كارتها چيني‬
‫نميفهمند‪ .‬اتاق خودش چيني نميفهمد‪ .‬اما سيستم در مجموع ميتواند خصوصياتي از خود نشان‬
‫دهد كه يك شاهد مجموعه باور كند كه سيستم (يا قسمتي از آن) چيني ميفهمند‪.‬‬
‫‪‬‬
‫به عبارت ديگر‪ ،‬راهاندازي يك برنامه كامپيوتري كه به روش هوشمند رفتار نمايد نيازي به توليد‬
‫فهم‪ ،‬هوشياري يا هوشمندي واقعي ندارد‪.‬‬
‫‪‬‬
‫اين استدالل با ديدگاه تورينگ مغايرت دارد‪ .‬براساس ديدگاه تورينگ ماشيني هوشمند است كه‬
‫بتواند انسان را گول بزند به طوري كه انسان فكر كند كه آن نيز يك انسان است‪.‬‬
‫‪‬‬
‫‪Strong Method vs. Weak Method‬‬
‫‪‬‬
‫روندهای قوی‬
‫‪‬‬
‫‪‬‬
‫روندهاي قوي آنهایي هستند كه از دانش موجود در ارتباط با محیط و‬
‫خود مسئلهاي كه در حال حل شدن است استفاده مينمایند‪ .‬جهت حل‬
‫بسیاري از مسائل پیچیده دنیا با استفاده از هوش مصنوعي احتیاج به‬
‫استفاده از روندهاي قوي ميباشد‪.‬‬
‫روندهای ضعیف‬
‫‪‬‬
‫روندهاي ضعیف آنهایي هستند كه وابسته به دانش و یافتههایي از محیط‬
‫و مسائلي كه قصد حل آنها را دارند‪ ،‬نميباشند‪ .‬اغلب تكنیكهاي مطرح‬
‫شده در این كالس از این نوعند‪.‬‬
AI History
Aristotle 384-322 B.C. : Syllogism

:‫ارسطو نظریه قیاس را بنا نهاد كه چنین تعریف ميشود‬
‫ چیزهاي معیني بالذاته وجود دارند و سایر چیزها‬،‫بحثي كه براساس آن‬
.‫ ضرورت وجود پیدا ميكنند‬،‫براساس این اصول موجود‬
All men are mortal. Socratis is a man.  Socrais is mortal
Gottfried Leibniz, late 17th century 
Developing a formal mathematical language for reasoning

George Boole, 1815-1864
Boolean algebra

Gottlob Frege, 1879,1884
First-Order Predicate Calculus


Charles Babbage, 1950s
Analytic engine – first computer



Turing Test


Alan Turing, Computing Machinery & Intelligence, 1950
An Interrogator
Is given access to two individuals – a human and a
computer
 Can ask the two individuals any questions in text mode
 Is requested to distinguish the computer from the
human


If the interrogator cannot distinguish the computer
from the human, then the computer may be
assumed to be intelligent.
Turing Test
Turing Test

Giving an objective notion of intelligence


Preventing from being sidetracked by confusing
& unanswered questions



The behavior of a known intelligent being in
response to a particular set of questions
whether the computer uses internal processes
whether the machine is conscious of its actions
Eliminating bias in favor of living organisms
over machine intelligence
Influences of Turing Test


No program has passed the Turing test yet
Providing a basis for many schemes used to
evaluate modern AI programs


Human behaviors could be as indications of
“intelligent” or “good”
Examples
Expert system
 Information retrieval
 Speech synthesis
 Spoken dialogue (wizard of Oz)

AI History

Artificial Intelligence was first used by John
McCarthy at a conference in Dartmouth College,
in Hanover, New Hampshire.


John McCarthy invented LISP programming
language in 1958
Newell and Simon (1957)invented the idea of
the General Problem Solver (GPS)
To solve almost any logical problem
 Means-ends analysis

AI History

1960~1990
Optimism  Realism
 No longer to create a robot as intelligent as a human,
but rather to use algorithms, heuristics, and
methodologies based on the ways in which the
human brains solves problems.

‫(حكمت و فلسفه) ‪Philosophy‬‬
‫‪Socratis and Plato‬‬
‫‪‬‬
‫‪ ‬ميخواهم بدانم كه این چه خصوصیتي در یك انسان پرهیزگار است كه باعث ميشود‬
‫عملهایش مقدس شوند‪ ...‬تا شاید من هم بتوانم آن را داشته باشم و به عنوان یك الگوي‬
‫استاندارد از آن استفاده كنم و به وسیله آن نگرش و برآوردي از اعمال خود و دیگر انسانها‬
‫برایم حاصل شود‪.‬‬
‫‪ ‬آیا در مغز ما چیز بیشتري از مجموعهاي از نرونهاي ساده وجود دارد؟ یا‪ ،‬به عبارت‬
‫دیگر‪ ،‬اگر هر نرون از مغز انسان به وسیله یك دستگاه محاسباتي معادل جایگزین شود ممكن‬
‫است به شخصي مشابه دست یابیم؟ و آیا مغز حاصل ميتواند هوشمند باشد؟‬
‫‪ An algorithm could be defined that described the behavior of humans‬‬
‫‪determines whether a person’s behavior was good or bad.‬‬
‫)‪Rene Descartes (17th century‬‬
‫‪‬‬
‫‪‬‬
‫جهان از دو ماده كامالً جدا تشكیل شده است‪ :‬جسم و خرد‪ .‬خرد كامالً از بدن فیزیكي جداست‬
‫و به هیچ وجه از جانب آن محدود نشده است‪ .‬از آن مهمتر دیسكارتز معتقد بود كه این‬
‫دوگانگي درباره حیوانات صادق نیست‪.‬‬
Linguistics )‫(زبانشناسي‬

Noam Chomsky 1950s
Syntactic Structure: a formal theory of the structure
of human language
 A structure of human knowledge

Psychology )‫(روانشناسي انساني‬

Cognitive psychology )‫(روانشناسی ادراکی‬


Human brain uses knowledge or information that it
is capable of processing in order to solve problems,
make decisions, draw conclusions, and carry out
other intelligent acts.
Behaviorism )‫(رفتارگرايي‬
stimuli  behavior
،‫ رفتار را مستقيما ً به انگيزههاي آن ارتباط ميدهد‬،‫ رفتارگرايي‬
‫بدون اينكه اطالعات و دانش موجود در مغز را در مورد آن‬
.‫مدنظر قرار دهد‬

Biology )‫(علم حیات‬

Neural Network


Learning capability
Genetic Algorithm
Gene, chromosome
 Evolution



Speech Recognition
Computer Vision
Four Approaches of AI
Logic
Cognitive
Science
Turing test
Knowledge rep.
NL processing
Machine learning
Automatic
reasoning
robotics
Rational
Agent
AI Programming Language


C++, Java, PROLOG, LISP (List Programming)
PROLOG (Programming in Logic)
Facts : made_from(cheese, milk).contains(milk, calcium).
 Rules : contains(X, Y):- made_from(X, Z), contains(Z, Y).
 Queries
contains(cheese, calcium).  yes
contains(X, calcium)  X=milk. X=cheese.

AI Application Area








Game Playing
Automatic Reasoning & Theorem Proving
Expert Systems
Natural Language Understanding and Semantic
Modeling
Planning and Robotics
Scheduling
Machine Learning
Neural Networks
List of AI Publications







General AI conferences: IJCAI, AAAI, ECAI
Reasoning under uncertainty: UAI
Machine learning: ICML, NIPS
Multi-agent systems: AAMAS
Vision: ICCV, CVPR
Some journals: Artificial Intelligence, Journal of AI Research,
Machine Learning, Journal of ML Research, Journal of
Autonomous Agents and Multi Agent Systems
AI Magazine
Some AI videos

Note: there is a lot of AI that is not quite this “sexy” but still
very valuable!
E.g. logistics planning – DARPA claims that savings from a single AI
planning application during 1991 Persian Gulf crisis more than paid
back for all of DARPA’s investment in AI, ever. [Russell and Norvig]
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1JJsBFiXGl0&feature=related
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ICgL1OWsn58&feature=related
http://www.cs.utexas.edu/~kdresner/aim/video/fcfs-insanity.mov
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HacG_FWWPOw&feature=related
http://videolectures.net/aaai07_littman_ai/
http://www.ai.sri.com/~nysmith/videos/SRI_AR-PA_AAAI08.avi
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ScXX2bndGJc
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