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Marketing
Research
Aaker, Kumar, Day
Seventh Edition
Instructor’s Presentation
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Chapter Eleven
Attitude Measurement
Attitude Measurement
Majority of questions in marketing research
are designed to measure attitudes
Attitudes include

Information possessed

Feelings of like and/or dislike

Intentions to behave
Management wants to understand and
influence behavior
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Reasons for Measuring
Attitudes
Attitudes lead to behavior
More feasible to ask questions on attitudes than to
observe and interpret behavior
Large capacity for diagnosis and explanation
Learn which features of a new product concept are
acceptable or unacceptable
Measure the perceived strengths and weaknesses
of competitive alternatives
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What Are Attitudes?
Mental states used by individuals to
structure the way they perceive their
environment and guide the way they
respond to it
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Components of Attitude
Cognitive or Knowledge Component

Represents a person’s information about an
object
 Awareness
of existence on the object
 Beliefs
about the characteristics
attributes of the object
 Judgments
or
about the relative importance
of each of the attributes
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Components of Attitude
(Cont.)
Affective or Liking Component

Summarizes a person’s overall feelings toward
an object, situation, or person

On a scale of like-dislike or favorableunfavorable

When there are several alternatives, liking is
expressed in terms of preference

Measured by asking which alternative is “most
preferred” or “first choice,” which is the “second
choice,” and so on
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Components of Attitude
(Cont.)
Intention or Action Component

Refers to a person’s expectations of future
behavior toward an object

Intentions are usually limited to a distinct time
period that depends on buying habits and
planning horizons
Advantage

Incorporates information about a respondent’s
ability or willingness to pay for the object, or
other taken action
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Measurement and Scaling
Measurement
Standardized process of assigning numbers or
other symbols to certain characteristics of objects
of interests according to pre-specified rules
Characteristics for Standardization
One-to-one correspondence between the symbol
and the characteristic in the object that is being
measured
Rules for assignment should be invariant over time
and the objects being measured
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Measurement and Scaling
(Contd.)
Scaling
Process of creating a continuum on
which objects are located according to
the amount of the measured
characteristic that the object possesses
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Measurement Scales
Nominal Scale
Objects are assigned to mutually exclusive,
labeled categories
No necessary relationships among categories
No ordering or spacing are implied
Only possible arithmetic operation is a count of
each category
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Measurement Scales (Contd.)
Ordinal Scale
Rank objects or arrange them in order by some
common variable
Does each object have more or less of a variable
than some other object?
Does not provide information on how much
difference between objects
Arithmetic operations are limited to statistics such
as median or mode
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Measurement Scales (Contd.)
Interval Scale
Numbers are assigned to objects that represent
categories, rank orders, as well as how much the
object is preferred on the attribute being
measured
Differences can be compared
Entire range of statistical operations can be
employed
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Measurement Scales (Contd.)
Ratio Scale
Type of interval scale with meaningful zero point
Possible to say how many times greater or smaller
one object is than another
Magnitude scaling of attitudes has been calibrated
through numeric estimation
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Attitude Rating Scales
Present a respondent with a continuum
of numbered categories that represent
the range of possible attitude
adjustments
Single item or multiple item scales
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Classification of Attitude
Scales
Single-Item
Scales
Itemized
Category
Scales
Q-sort
Scales
Rank Order
Scales
Attitude Scales
Multi-Item
Scales
Continuous
Scales
Comparative
Scales
Semantic
Differential
Scale
Associative
Scales
Paired
Comparison
Scales
Constant
Sum Scales
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Pictorial
Scales
Likert
Scales
Thurstone
Scales
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Stapel
Scales
Single Item Scales
Only have one item to measure a construct
Itemized-category scale most widely used by
marketing researchers
Other single item scales

Comparative

Rank-order

Q-sort

Pictorial

Constant sum
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Single Item Scales (Contd.)
Itemized-category Scales
Scales in which the respondent selects from a
limited number of categories
Comparative Scale
A judgment comparing one object, concept, or
person against one another
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Single Item Scales (Contd.)
Rank-order Scales
Scale in which the respondent compares one
item with another or a group of items against
each other and ranks them
Q-sort Scaling
Respondents sort comparative characteristics
into normally distributed groups
Ten or more groups increases accuracy of
results
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Single Item Scales (Contd.)
Constant-sum scale
Respondents allocate a fixed number of rating
points among serial objects to reflect relative
preference
Pictorial scales
Various categories of the scale are depicted
pictorially

Thermometer Scale

Funny faces scale
Format must be comprehensible to respond and
allow accurate response
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Single Item Scales (Contd.)
Paired-Comparison Scales
The brands to be rated are presented two at a time, so
each brand in the category was compared once to every
other brand
Brands are rated on a given 10 pts. that are then divided
between the two brands
Advantages
Performs well on the criteria
Limitations
Cumbersome to administer
Frame of reference is always the other brand being tested;
these brands may change over time
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Designing Single Item Scales
Number of Scale Categories
Types of Poles Used in the Scale
Strength of the Anchors
Labeling of the Categories
Balance of a Scale
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Multiple-item Scales
Developed to measure a sample of
beliefs toward the attitude objects and
combine the set of answers into an
average score
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Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)
Likert Scale
Requires respondent to indicate degree of
agreement or disagreement with a variety of
statements related to the attitude object
Summated Scale

Scores on individual items are summed to give
total score for respondents
Likert Scale Is Uni-dimensional
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Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)
Thurstone Scales
Also known as the method of equal-appearing
intervals; objective is to obtain a unidimensional
scale with interval properties
Step 1:

Generate a large number of statements or adjectives
reflecting all degrees of favorableness toward the
attitude of objects
Step 2:

A group of judges is given this set of items and asked to
classify them according to their degree of favorableness
or unfavorableness
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Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)
Thurstone Scales (Cont.)
Advantages


Easy to administer
Requires minimum instructions
Limitations




Time consuming
Expensive to construct
Not as much diagnostic value as a Likert scale
Values depend on the attitudes of the original
judges
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Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)
Semantic-differential Scale
Respondents rate each attribute object on a
number of five or seven-point rating scales
bounded by polar adjectives or phrases
With bipolar scale, the midpoint is a neutral
point
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Characteristics of Semantic
Differential
Scales in Semantic Marketing Applications:
Pairs of objects or phrases must be meaningful in
market being studied and often correspond to
product/service attributes
Avoid "halo" effect by placing negative pole on either
side
Category increments are treated as interval scales so
group mean values can be computed for each object
on each scale
May also be analyzed as a summated rating scale
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Characteristics of Semantic
Differential (Contd.)
Profile Analysis
Application of semantic differential scale
Plot mean ratings of each object on each
scale for visual comparison
Overall comparison of brands hard to grasp
with many brands and attributes
Not all attributes are independent
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Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)
Stapel Scales
Uses one pole rather than two opposite poles
Respondents select a numerical response
category
High positive score reflects good fit between
adjective and object
Easy to administer and construct
No need to assure bipolarity
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Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)
Associative Scaling
Most effective for markets where respondent
is knowledgeable only about a small subset
of a large number of choices
Appropriate to choice situations that involve
a sequential decision process
Best suited to market tracking where the
emphasis is on understanding shifts in
relative competitive positions
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Multiple-item Scales (Contd.)
Continuous Rating Scales
Respondents rate objects by placing a mark at
appropriate position on a line running from one
extreme of the criterion variable to the other
Values can be interpreted as interval or ratio
scaled data
It is easy to construct
Scoring is cumbersome and unreliable
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General Guidelines For
Developing A Multiple-Item
Scale
Determine clearly what you are going to
measure
Generate as many items as possible
Ask experts in the field to evaluate the
initial pool of items
Determine the type of attitudinal scale
to be used
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Include some items that will help in the
validation of the scale
Administer the items to an initial
sample
Evaluate and refine the items
Finally, optimize the scale length
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Choosing An Attitudinal Scale
Problems in choosing


There are many different techniques, each with its
own strengths and weaknesses
Virtually any technique can be adapted to the
measurement of any one of the attitude components
Researchers choice shaped by:



The specific information required
Adabtability of the scale to the data collection
method and budget constraints
Compatibility of the scale with the structure of the
respondent’s attitude
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Accuracy of Attitude
Measurements
Validity

An attitude measure has validity if it measures what
it is supposed to measure
Face Validity

The extent to which the content of a measurement
scale appears to tap all relevant facets of the
construct
Criterion Validity

Based on empirical evidence that the attitude
measure correlates with other “criterion” variables
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Accuracy of Attitude
Measurements (Cont.)
Concurrent validity

Two variables are measured at the same time
Predictive validity

The attitude measure can predict some future event
Convergent validity

A form of construct validity that represents the
association between the measured construct and
measures of other constructs with which the construct
is related on theoretical grounds
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Accuracy of Attitude
Measurements (Cont.)
Discriminant validity

A form of construct validity that represents the
extent to which the measured construct is not
associated with which the construct is related on
theoretical grounds
Construct Validity

A scale evaluation criterion that relates to the
underlying question "what is the nature of the
underlying variable or construct measured by
the scale?"
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Accuracy of Attitude
Measurements (Contd.)
Reliability

The consistency with which the measure
produces the same results with the same or
comparable population
Sensitivity

Extent to which ratings provided by a scale are
able to discriminate between the respondents
who differ with respect to the construct being
measured
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Accuracy of Attitude
Measurements (Contd.)
Generalizability

Refers to the ease of scale administration and
interpretation in different research settings and
situations
Relevancy

Relevance = reliability * validity
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Scales in Cross-national
Research
Responses Can Be Affected by:
Low literacy and educational levels
Culture in a country
Semantic differential scale is closest to pan
cultural scale
Adapting response formats, particularly their
calibration, for specific countries and cultures
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