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Chapter 22
Evolution decent with
Modification
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You should now be able to:
1. Describe the contributions to evolutionary
theory made by Linnaeus, Cuvier, Lyell,
Lamarck, Malthus, and Wallace
2. Describe Lamarck’s theories, and explain
why they have been rejected
3. Explain what Darwin meant by “descent
with modification”
4. List and explain Darwin’s four observations
and two inferences
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5. Explain why an individual organism cannot
evolve
6. Describe at least four lines of evidence for
evolution by natural selection
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Theories of Evolution
•Origin Myths/Cosmologies
– Greek – Prometheus
Western examples
– Genesis
Left: Prometheus and Athena
Top: God and Adam
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Ancient Greek philosopher Anaxiamander (611547 B.C.) and the Roman philosopher Lucretius
(99-55 B.C.) conceived of the idea that all living
things were related and that they had changed
over time.
Lucretius
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Aristotle’s Great
Chain of Being
(Scala Naturae)
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Early Ideas about Evolution
Comte de Buffon
(Georges Louis Leclerc)
1707-1788
Jean-Baptiste Lamarck
1744-1829
Erasmus Darwin
1731-1802
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Baron Cuvier
1769-1832
Other Theories
• Creationism accounts for biological diversity by referring to
the divine act of Creation as described in Genesis.
• Catastrophism is a modified version of Creationism, which
accounts for the fossil record by positing divinely authored
worldwide disasters that wiped out the creatures represented
in the fossil record, who were then supplanted by newer,
created species.
• Intelligent Design states that modern physics and
cosmology have uncovered evidence for intelligence in the
structure of the universe and this intelligence seems to act
with us in mind and that the universe as a whole shows
evidence of design.
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Jean Baptiste Lamarck, 1744-1829
•French geologist and naturalist
•published Philosophie Zoologique
in 1809
•speculated about mechanisms of
biological evolution, offered no
evidence
•Lyell discussed Lamarck’s ideas in
his Principles of Geology
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Ideas of Lamarck that were rejected by Darwin
• evolution is a process in which living things gradually become
more perfect (more human-like)
• because species that evolve and improve leave a gap, new species
must be continually created by spontaneous creation
• the inheritance of acquired characteristics is the mechanism of
evolution
(but inheritance of acquired characteristics was not entirely rejected by
Darwin)
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Charles Darwin:
failed medical
student, failed
divinity student,
ardent beetle
collector,
naturalist on
HMS Beagle
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Voyage of
H.M.S. Beagle,
1831 - 1836
90 feet of ship,
74 people living
together for 5
years...
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Darwin’s voyage on HMS Beagle took five years and went east to west,
staying largely within the SE trade winds in the southern hemisphere.
This is a favorite route for cruisers today, but not racers, who prefer to go
west to east and stay in the roaring forties around Antartica.
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Understanding the Depth of Time
James Hutton
Charles Lyell
1726-1797
1797 - 1875
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Understanding
Populations
Populations
Thomas Malthus
Thomas Malthus
1766-1834
1766-1834
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Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace (1823-1913)
•Darwin developed ideas on natural
selection in early 1840s (1844 essay),
but did not publish
•He received a letter from Wallace in
1858 outlining natural selection
•His friends organized an 1858
presentation in London of Wallace’s
and Darwin’s work
•1859 publication of Origin of Species
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Darwin and Wallace Volumes
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• Overview: Darwin Introduces a Revolutionary
Theory
• A new era of biology began on November 24,
1859
– The day Charles Darwin published On the
Origin of Species by Means of Natural
Selection
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• The Origin of Species
– Focused biologists’ attention on the great
diversity of organisms
Figure 22.1
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• Darwin made two major points in his book
– He presented evidence that the many species
of organisms presently inhabiting the Earth are
descendants of ancestral species
– He proposed a mechanism for the evolutionary
process, natural selection
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• Concept 22.1: The Darwinian revolution
challenged traditional views of a young Earth
inhabited by unchanging species
• In order to understand why Darwin’s ideas
were revolutionary
– We need to examine his views in the context of
other Western ideas about Earth and its life
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• The historical context of Darwin’s life and ideas
Linnaeus (classification)
Hutton (gradual geologic change)
Lamarck (species can change)
Malthus (population limits)
Cuvier (fossils, extinction)
Lyell (modern geology)
Darwin (evolution, nutural selection)
Mendel (inheritance)
American Revolution
1750
Wallace (evolution, natural selection)
French Revolution
U.S. Civil War
1800
1850
1900
1795 Hutton proposes his theory of gradualism.
1798 Malthus publishes “Essay on the Principle of Population.”
1809 Lamarck publishes his theory of evolution.
1830 Lyell publishes Principles of Geology.
1831–1836 Darwin travels around the world on HMS Beagle.
1837 Darwin begins his notebooks on the origin of species.
1844 Darwin writes his essay on the origin of species.
1858 Wallace sends his theory to Darwin.
1859 The Origin of Species is published.
1865 Mendel publishes inheritance papers.
Figure 22.2
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Resistance to the Idea of Evolution
• The Origin of Species
– Shook the deepest roots of Western culture
– Challenged a worldview that had been
prevalent for centuries
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The Scale of Nature and Classification of Species
• The Greek philosopher Aristotle
– Viewed species as fixed and unchanging
• The Old Testament of the Bible
– Holds that species were individually designed
by God and therefore perfect
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• Carolus Linnaeus
– Interpreted organismal adaptations as
evidence that the Creator had designed each
species for a specific purpose
– Was a founder of taxonomy, classifying life’s
diversity “for the greater glory of God”
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Fossils, Cuvier, and Catastrophism
• The study of fossils
– Helped to lay the groundwork for Darwin’s ideas
• Fossils are remains or traces of organisms
from the past
– Usually found in sedimentary rock, which appears
in layers or strata
Figure 22.3
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• Paleontology, the study of fossils
– Was largely developed by French scientist
Georges Cuvier
• Cuvier opposed the idea of gradual
evolutionary change
– And instead advocated catastrophism,
speculating that each boundary between
strata represents a catastrophe
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Fig. 22-15
0
2
4
4
6
4 Bristolia insolens
8
3 Bristolia bristolensis
10
12
3
2 Bristolia harringtoni
14
16
18 1 Bristolia mohavensis
3
2
1
Latham Shale dig site, San
Bernardino County, California
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Theories of Gradualism
• Gradualism
– Is the idea that profound change can take
place through the cumulative effect of slow but
continuous processes
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• Geologists Hutton and Lyell
– Perceived that changes in Earth’s surface can
result from slow continuous actions still
operating today
– Exerted a strong influence on Darwin’s thinking
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Lamarck’s Theory of Evolution
• Lamarck hypothesized that species evolve
– Through use and disuse and the inheritance of
acquired traits
– But the mechanisms he proposed are
unsupported by evidence
Figure 22.4
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• Concept 22.2: In The Origin of Species, Darwin
proposed that species change through natural
selection
• As the 19th century dawned
– It was generally believed that species had
remained unchanged since their creation, but a
major change would challenge this thinking
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Darwin’s Research
• As a boy and into adulthood, Charles Darwin
– Had a consuming interest in nature
• Soon after Darwin received his B.A. degree
– He was accepted on board the HMS Beagle,
which was about to embark on a voyage
around the world
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Darwin’s Focus on Adaptation
• As Darwin reassessed all that he had observed
during the voyage of the Beagle
– He began to perceive adaptation to the
environment and the origin of new species as
closely related processes
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• From studies made years after Darwin’s
voyage
– Biologists have concluded that this is indeed
what happened to the Galápagos finches
(a) Cactus eater. The long,
sharp beak of the cactus
ground finch (Geospiza
scandens) helps it tear
and eat cactus flowers
and pulp.
Figure 22.6a–c
(c) Seed eater. The large ground
finch (Geospiza magnirostris)
has a large beak adapted for
cracking seeds that fall from
plants to the ground.
(b) Insect eater. The green warbler
finch (Certhidea olivacea) uses its
narrow, pointed beak to grasp insects.
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• In 1844, Darwin wrote a long essay on the
origin of species and natural selection
– But he was reluctant to introduce his theory
publicly, anticipating the uproar it would cause
• In June 1858 Darwin received a manuscript
from Alfred Russell Wallace
– Who had developed a theory of natural
selection similar to Darwin’s
• Darwin quickly finished The Origin of Species
– And published it the next year
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The Origin of Species
• Darwin developed two main ideas
– Evolution explains life’s unity and diversity
– Natural selection is a cause of adaptive
evolution
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Descent with Modification
• The phrase descent with modification
– Summarized Darwin’s perception of the unity
of life
– States that all organisms are related through
descent from an ancestor that lived in the
remote past
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• In the Darwinian view, the history of life is like a tree
– With multiple branchings from a common trunk
to the tips of the youngest twigs that represent
the diversity of living organisms
Sirenia
Hyracoidea (Manatees
(Hyraxes) and relatives)
Elephas Loxodonta Loxodonta
maximus africana
cyclotis
(Africa)
(Asia)
(Africa)
Figure 22.7
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Natural Selection and Adaptation
• Evolutionary biologist Ernst Mayr
– Has dissected the logic of Darwin’s theory into
three inferences based on five observations
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• Observation #1: For any species, population
sizes would increase exponentially
– If all individuals that are born reproduced
successfully
Figure 22.8
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• Observation #2: Nonetheless, populations tend
to be stable in size
– Except for seasonal fluctuations
• Observation #3: Resources are limited
• Inference #1: Production of more individuals
than the environment can support
– Leads to a struggle for existence among
individuals of a population, with only a fraction
of their offspring surviving
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• Observation #4: Members of a population vary
extensively in their characteristics
– No two individuals are exactly alike
Figure 22.9
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• Observation #5: Much of this variation is
heritable
• Inference #2: Survival depends in part on
inherited traits
– Individuals whose inherited traits give them a
high probability of surviving and reproducing
are likely to leave more offspring than other
individuals
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• Inference #3: This unequal ability of individuals
to survive and reproduce
– Will lead to a gradual change in a population,
with favorable characteristics accumulating
over generations
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Artificial Selection
• In the process of artificial selection
– Humans have modified other species over
many generations by selecting and breeding
individuals that possess desired traits
Terminal
bud
Lateral
buds
Brussels sprouts
Cabbage
Flower
cluster
Leaves
Cauliflower
Kale
Flower
and
stems
Broccoli
Stem
Wild mustard
Figure 22.10
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Kohlrabi
Summary of Natural Selection
• Natural selection is differential success in
reproduction
– That results from the interaction between
individuals that vary in heritable traits and their
environment
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• Natural selection can produce an increase over time
– In the adaptation of organisms to their
environment
(a) A flower mantid
in Malaysia
(b) A stick mantid
in Africa
Figure 22.11
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• If an environment changes over time
– Natural selection may result in adaptation to
these new conditions
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• Concept 22.3: Darwin’s theory explains a wide
range of observations
• Darwin’s theory of evolution
– Continues to be tested by how effectively it can
account for additional observations and
experimental outcomes
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Natural Selection in Action
• Two examples
– Provide evidence for natural selection
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Differential Predation in Guppy Populations
• Researchers have observed natural selection
– Leading to adaptive evolution in guppy
populations
Reznick and Endler transplanted guppies from pike-cichlid pools to killifish pools
EXPERIMENT
and measured the average age and size of guppies at maturity over an 11-year period (30 to
60 generations).
Pools with killifish,
but not guppies prior
to transplant
Experimental
transplant of
guppies
Predator: Killifish; preys
mainly on small guppies
Guppies:
Larger at
sexual maturity
than those in
“pike-cichlid pools”
Predator: Pike-cichlid; preys mainly on large guppies
Guppies: Smaller at sexual maturity than
those in “killifish pools”
Figure 22.12
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RESULTS
After 11 years, the average size and age at maturity of guppies in the transplanted
populations increased compared to those of guppies in control populations.
185.6
161.5
85.7 92.3
48.5
58.2
Control Population: Guppies
from pools with pike-cichlids
as predators
67.5 76.1
Males
Females
Males
Females
Experimental Population:
Guppies transplanted to
pools with killifish as
predators
CONCLUSION Reznick and Endler concluded that the change in predator resulted in different variations
in the population (larger size and faster maturation) being favored. Over a relatively short time, this altered
selection pressure resulted in an observable evolutionary change in the experimental population.
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The Evolution of Drug-Resistant HIV
• In humans, the use of drugs
– Selects for pathogens that through chance
mutations are resistant to the drugs’ effects
• Natural selection is a cause of adaptive
evolution
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• Researchers have developed numerous drugs
to combat HIV
– But using these medications selects for
viruses resistant to the drugs
Patient
No. 1
Patient No. 2
Patient No. 3
Weeks
Figure 22.13
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• The ability of bacteria and viruses to evolve
rapidly
– Poses a challenge to our society
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Homology, Biogeography, and the Fossil Record
• Evolutionary theory
– Provides a cohesive explanation for many
kinds of observations
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Homology
• Homology
– Is similarity resulting from common ancestry
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Anatomical Homologies
• Homologous structures between organisms
– Are anatomical resemblances that represent
variations on a structural theme that was
present in a common ancestor
Human
Cat
Figure 22.14
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Whale
Bat
• Comparative embryology
– Reveals additional anatomical homologies not
visible in adult organisms
Pharyngeal
pouches
Post-anal
tail
Chick embryo
Figure 22.15
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Human embryo
• Vestigial organs
– Are some of the most intriguing homologous
structures
– Are remnants of structures that served
important functions in the organism’s
ancestors
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Molecular Homologies
• Biologists also observe homologies among
organisms at the molecular level
– Such as genes that are shared among
organisms inherited from a common ancestor
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Homologies and the Tree of Life
• The Darwinian concept of an evolutionary tree
of life
– Can explain the homologies that researchers
have observed
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• Anatomical resemblances among species
– Are generally reflected in their molecules, their
genes, and their gene products
Species
Percent of Amino Acids That Are
Identical to the Amino Acids in a
Human Hemoglobin Polypeptide
100%
Human
Rhesus monkey
95%
Mouse
87%
Chicken
69%
Frog
Figure 22.16
Lamprey
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54%
14%
Biogeography
• Darwin’s observations of biogeography, the
geographic distribution of species, formed
an important part of his theory of evolution
• Islands have many endemic species that
are often closely related to species on the
nearest mainland or island
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• Earth’s continents were formerly united in a
single large continent called Pangaea, but
have since separated by continental drift
• An understanding of continent movement
and modern distribution of species allows us
to predict when and where different groups
evolved
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• Some similar mammals that have adapted to
similar environments
– Have evolved independently from different ancestors
NORTH
AMERICA
Sugar
glider
AUSTRALIA
Flying
squirrel
Figure 22.17
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The Fossil Record
• The succession of forms observed in the fossil
record
– Is consistent with other inferences about the
major branches of descent in the tree of life
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• The Darwinian view of life
– Predicts that evolutionary transitions should
leave signs in the fossil record
• Paleontologists
– Have discovered fossils of many such
transitional forms
Figure 22.18
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What Is Theoretical about the Darwinian View of Life?
• In science, a theory
– Accounts for many observations and data and
attempts to explain and integrate a great
variety of phenomena
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• Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural
selection
– Integrates diverse areas of biological study
and stimulates many new research questions
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What Is Theoretical About Darwin’s View of Life?
• In science, a theory accounts for many
observations and data and attempts to
explain and integrate a great variety of
phenomena
• Darwin’s theory of evolution by natural
selection integrates diverse areas of
biological study and stimulates many new
research questions
• Ongoing research adds to our
understanding of evolution
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Fig. 22-UN1
Observations
Individuals in a population
vary in their heritable
characteristics.
Organisms produce more
offspring than the
environment can support.
Inferences
Individuals that are well suited
to their environment tend to leave
more offspring than other individuals
and
Over time, favorable traits
accumulate in the population.
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Fig. 22-UN2
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Fig. 22-UN3
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