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6.1 Organizing the Elements > Chapter 6 The Periodic Table 6.1 Organizing the Elements 6.2 Classifying the Elements 6.3 Periodic Trends 1 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > CHEMISTRY & YOU How can you organize and classify elements? 2 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Searching for an Organizing Principle Objectives • Discuss how early chemists organized the known elements. • Describe how the modern periodic table is organized. • Identify three broad classes of elements 3 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Searching for an Organizing Principle A few elements, including copper, silver, and gold, have been known for thousands of years. • There were only 13 elements identified by the year 1700. – Chemists suspected that other elements existed. – In one decade (1765–1775), chemists discovered five new elements. 4 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Searching for an Organizing Principle Early chemists attempted to organize the known elements. o Some used the properties of the elements • Dobereiner, a German chemist, published a classification system for elements. o He organized and grouped the known elements into triads. 5 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Today’s Periodic Table Today’s Periodic Table How is the modern periodic table organized? 6 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Today’s Periodic Table In the modern periodic table, elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number. 7 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Today’s Periodic Table • Henry Moseley modified Mendeleev’s table o **He arranged the elements by increasing atomic number. o **Elements that have similar chemical and physical properties end up in the same column in the periodic table. 8 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Today’s Periodic Table • This led to the Periodic Law o When the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, there is a periodic repetition of their physical and chemical properties. 9 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Today’s Periodic Table • There are seven horizontal rows or periods in the table o Each period corresponds to the energy level • There are eighteen vertical columns or groups in the table 10 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Today’s Periodic Table • Today’s table has 118 elements 11 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Today’s Periodic Table • Periodicity can be observed in the periodic table o *Each group has similar properties o The electron configuration tells an element’s position in the periodic table 12 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Warm-up 1. What is the electron configuration of Phosphorus? 2. Determine the element from the atomic model pictured below. Find the number of valence electrons. 13 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Chapter 6 The Periodic Table 6.1 Organizing the Elements 6.2 Classifying the Elements 6.3 Periodic Trends 14 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Electron Configurations in Groups Objectives • Describe the information in a periodic table. • Classify elements based on electron configuration. 15 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > 16 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Blocks of Elements The periodic table is divided into sections, or blocks, that correspond to the highest occupied sublevels. 17 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Electron Configurations in Groups Electron Configurations in Groups • 18 How can elements be classified based on electron configurations? Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Electron Configurations in Groups • Electrons play a key role in determining the properties of elements. Elements can be sorted into noble gases, halogens, transition metals, or inner transition metals based on their electron configurations. 19 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Electron Configurations in Groups Remember: • s block – groups 1 & 2 • p block – groups 13 – 18 • d block – groups 3 – 12 • f block – bottom two rows 20 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > • s block o Group 1 – Alkali metals (s1) - Most reactive metals - So reactive, not found in nature as elements 1 valence electron https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=m55kgyApYrY Lithium (Li) 1s22s1 Sodium (Na) 1s22s22p63s1 Potassium (K) 1s22s22p63s23p64s1 21 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > • s block o Group 2 – Alkaline Earth metals (s2) - Less reactive than group 1 metals - 2 valence electrons Beryllium (Be) Magnesium (Mg) Calcium (Ca) 22 1s22s2 1s22s22p63s2 1s22s22p63s23p64s2 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > • p block o Group 13 – Mixed group (s2p1) - Even less reactive than groups 1 & 2 - 3 valence electrons Boron (B) Aluminum (Al) Gallium (Ga) 23 1s22s22p1 1s22s22p63s23p1 1s22s22p63s23p64s23d104p1 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > • p block o Group 14 – Mixed group (s2p2) - 4 valence electrons o Group 15 – Mixed group (s2p3) - 5 valence electrons 24 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > p block Group 16 – Nonmetals (s2p4) - 6 valence electrons Group 17 – Halogens (s2p5) - Most reactive nonmetals - 7 valence electrons - Example Fluorine: 1s22s22p5 Video1 Video2 Group 18 – Noble Gases (s2p6) - 8 valence electrons (with the exception of helium) - Completely unreactive nonmetals 25 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Electron Configurations in Groups Halogens • There are seven electrons in the highest occupied energy level (7 valence electrons). 26 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Electron Configurations in Groups The Noble Gases • There are eight electrons in the highest occupied energy level. o These eight electrons are called valence electrons 27 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > d block Groups 3 – 12 – Transition metals - Have usually 2 or 3 valence electrons - Less reactive than groups 1 & 2 - Have the ability to move their electrons from s and d orbitals f block Bottom two rows - Known as the lanthanides and actinides (inner transition metals or rare earth metals) - Have usually 2 or 3 valence electrons - Have the ability to move their electrons from s and f orbitals 28 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Sample Problem 6.1 1 Analyze Identify the relevant concepts. • For all elements, the atomic number is equal to the total number of electrons. • For a representative element, the highest occupied energy level is the same as the number of the period in which the element is located. • You can tell how many electrons are in this energy level from the group in which the element is located. 29 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Sample Problem 6.1 2 Calculate Apply the concepts to this problem. Use Figure 6.9 to identify where the atom is in the periodic table and the number of electrons in the atom. 1. This element ends in 3s23p2 Ans: Silicon 2. This element ends in 5s24d2 Ans: Zirconium 3. This element ends in 5s25p5 Ans: Iodine 30 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Section 6-1 Section 6.1 Assessment What is a row of elements on the periodic table called? A. octave B. period 31 D A 0% C D. transition B C. group A. A B. B C. C 0% 0% 0% D. D 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Section 6-1 Section 6.1 Assessment What is silicon an example of? A. metal B. non-metal 32 D A 0% C D. metalloid A. A B. B C. C 0% 0% 0% D. D B C. inner transition metal 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Key Concepts • Elements can be sorted into noble gases, representative elements, transition metals, or inner transition metals based on their electron configurations. 33 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Three broad classes of elements are metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. • The elements can be grouped into one of these three classes based on their general properties. 34 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids Periodic tables are sometimes color-coded to classify types of elements. 35 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Today’s Periodic Table Metals • The majority of elements are metals • Metals have three key properties 1) Shiny or luster 2) Flexible (malleable – hammer into a sheet and ductile – drawn into a wire) 3) Good conductor of energy (electricity and heat) 36 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids Nonmetals • Although there are fewer nonmetals, they are more abundant on Earth • Nonmetals have three key properties 1) Dull 2) Brittle 3) Poor conductor of heat and electricity 37 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids Nonmetals The variation among nonmetals makes it difficult to describe one set of general properties that will apply to all nonmetals. • A diamond, which is composed of carbon, is very hard. 38 • Some match heads are coated with phosphorus, a brittle solid. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids Metalloids There is a heavy stair-step line that separates the metals from the nonmetals. • Most of the elements that border this line are shaded green. • These elements are metalloids. 39 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids Metalloids • A metalloid generally has properties that are similar to those of metals and nonmetals. o Their properties can be changed by conditions o Silicon is the most famous metalloid -It is responsible for computer chips 40 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Metals, Nonmetals, and Metalloids Metalloids • Silicon is also present as the compound silicon dioxide in glass items. • Silicon can be cut into wafers and used to make computer chips. 41 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > CHEMISTRY & YOU All of the known elements are listed in the periodic table. What are different ways you could use the periodic table to classify elements? 42 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > CHEMISTRY & YOU All of the known elements are listed in the periodic table. What are different ways you could use the periodic table to classify elements? You can use the periodic table to classify elements by their atomic weight, by their chemical properties, by their physical properties, or by their electron configuration. 43 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Key Concepts Early chemists used the properties of elements to sort them into groups. Mendeleev arranged the elements in his periodic table in order of increasing atomic mass. In the modern periodic table, elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number. Three classes of elements are metals, nonmetals, and metalloids. 44 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Glossary Terms • periodic law: when the elements are arranged in order of increasing atomic number, there is a periodic repetition of their physical and chemical properties • metal: one of a class of elements that are good conductors of heat and electric current; metals tend to be ductile, malleable, and shiny 45 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Glossary Terms • nonmetal: an element that tends to be a poor conductor of heat and electric current; nonmetals generally have properties opposite to those of metals • metalloid: an element that tends to have properties that are similar to those of metals and nonmetals 46 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Do Now 1. ___ ion a. The ability of an atom to attract electrons when in a compound 2. ___ atomic radius a. Atom that has a positive or negative charge 3. ___ ionization energy 4. ___ electronegativity 47 b. one-half the distance between the nuclei of two atoms when atoms are joined c. The energy required to remove an electron from an atom Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Terrence Howard Wears Diamonds https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gWTE Xtx8mQA 48 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Chapter 6 The Periodic Table 6.1 Organizing the Elements 6.2 Classifying the Elements 6.3 Periodic Trends 49 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Objectives • Describe trends among elements for atomic size (radii), ionization energy, electron affinity, and electronegativity. • Explain how ions form. 50 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > There are several trends in the periodic table o o o o o o 51 Valence electrons Atomic radii Ionic radii Ionization energy Electron affinity Electronegativity Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Trends in Atomic Size Trends in Atomic Radii • The distance between the nuclei of two identical atoms (i.e. two chlorine atoms) that are bonded together can be used to estimate the size of the atoms. • Atomic radii is one half the distance between the nuclei of two atoms of the same element 52 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . Trends in> Atomic Size 6.1 Organizing the Elements Atomic Radius Trend: Down a group – atomic radii increases -This happens because of the increased number of energy levels -The energy levels shield the electrons from the attraction of protons in the nucleus 53 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . Trends in> Atomic Size 6.1 Organizing the Elements Atomic Radius Trend: oAcross a period – atomic radii decreases -This happens because as more electrons are added to the same energy level, those electrons are pulled closer due to the increased number of protons in the nucleus oLargest atomic radii – francium Smallest atomic radii – fluorine 54 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Trends in Atomic Size The figure below summarizes the group and period trends in atomic size. 55 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Trends in Atomic Size Periodic Trends in Atomic Size Atomic radius (pm) Across a period, the electrons are added to the same principal energy level. 56 © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. AtomicCopyright number . Interpret>Graphs 6.1 Organizing the Elements Group Trends in Atomic Size The atomic radius within these groups increases as the atomic number increases. Atomic radius (pm) • This increase is an example of a trend. Atomic number 57 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > What are the trends for atomic radii? In general, atomic radius increases from top to bottom within a group and decreases from left to right across a period. 58 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Trends in Atomic Size Valence electrons are the electrons found in the outermost energy level o These are the electrons available to be gained, lost, or shared 59 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > All atoms want 8 valence electrons or a full outer energy level - Noble gas electron configuration Valence electrons determine the chemical properties of the atom Valence electrons can be represented using Lewis Dot Diagrams 60 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Trends in Atomic Size Valence electrons can be represented using Lewis Dot Diagrams 61 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Do Now 1. What is the trend in atomic radii going down a group? 2. Explain your answer for #1. 3. What is the trend in atomic radii going left to right across the periodic table? 4. Draw the Lewis Dot Diagram for Boron. 62 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Atoms are neutral because there are equal numbers of both protons and electrons o Example: Sodium (Na) 11 positively charged protons 11 negatively charged electrons o The net charge on a sodium atom is zero [(+11) + (-11) = 0]. Sometimes atoms can gain or lose electrons to form ions 63 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > An ion is an atom or group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge o Losing electrons results in a positive ion called a cation o Gaining electrons results in a negative ion called an anion 64 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Ions Ions How do ions form? http://education-portal.com/academy/lesson/ionspredicting-formation-charge-and-formulas-ofions.html#lesson 65 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Metals (left side of the table) form cations Cations are smaller than their atom counterparts because they are losing an electron (and sometimes an energy level) • More positive charges have a greater pull on less negative charges 66 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Nonmetals (right side of the table) form anions Anions are larger than their atom counterparts because they are gaining an electron • Less positive charges cannot pull in the greater number of negative charges 67 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > What type of element tends to form anions? What type tends to form cations? Nonmetals tend to form anions. Metals tend to form cations. 68 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Ionization Energy video Ionization energy is the energy required to remove an electron from an atom o a low IE means it is easier to remove the electron o Atoms can lose an electron, to form an ion They do this to achieve noble gas electron configuration (or 8 valence electrons) o When an atom easily loses electrons, it is said to be active o Metals tend to lose electrons 69 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Ionization Energy oDown a group – ionization energy decreases •As the valence electrons are farther from the nucleus, the atom gives them up easily, requiring little energy to remove them 70 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Ionization Energy oAcross a period – ionization energy increases •As the number of valence electrons increases in the same energy level, the atom is more resistant to giving up an electron (more energy) oGreatest IE – fluorine oLeast IE - francium 71 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > 72 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > 73 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Electronegativity Electronegativity is the measure of the ability of an atom in a chemical compound to attract electrons o All values are based on fluorine - Fluorine is most electronegative atom - 4.0 - The trend decreases in either direction from fluorine 74 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . Interpret>Data 6.1 Organizing the Elements This table lists electronegativity values for representative elements in Groups 1A through 7A. Electronegativity Values for Selected Elements H 2.1 75 Li 1.0 Be 1.5 B 2.0 C 2.5 N 3.0 O 3.5 F 4.0 Na 0.9 Mg 1.2 Al 1.5 Si 1.8 P 2.1 S 2.5 Cl 3.0 K 0.8 Ca 1.0 Ga 1.6 Ge 1.8 As 2.0 Se 2.4 Br 2.8 Rb 0.8 Sr 1.0 In 1.7 Sn 1.8 Sb 1.9 Te 2.1 I 2.5 Cs 0.7 Ba 0.9 Tl 1.8 Pb 1.9 Bi 1.9 • The data in this table is expressed in Pauling units. Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Electronegativity Trend 76 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Trends in Electronegativity This figure summarizes several trends that exist among the elements. 77 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Key Concepts In general, atomic size increases from top to bottom within a group and decreases from left to right across a period. Positive and negative ions form when electrons are transferred between atoms. First ionization energy tends to decrease from top to bottom within a group and decrease from left to right across a period. 78 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Key Concepts In general, electronegativity values decrease from top to bottom within a group. For representative elements, the values tend to increase from left to right across a period. 79 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > END OF 6.3 80 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > 81 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > 82 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Atoms are neutral because there are equal numbers of both protons and electrons Ex. Carbon C 6 protons 6 electrons o Sometimes atoms can gain or lose electrons to form ions • An ion is an atom or group of atoms that has a positive or negative charge 83 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > o Losing electrons results in a positive ion called a cation • Metals (left side of the table) form cations Example: K1+ o Gaining electrons results in a negative ion called an anion • Nonmetals (right side of the table) form anions Example: Cl184 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > Practice Lithium Oxygen Li # ___ protons # ___ electrons Li1+ # ___ protons # ___ electrons O # ___ protons # ___ electrons O285 # ___ protons # ___ electrons 6.1 Organizing the Elements > BIG IDEA Electrons and the Structure of Atoms • Periodic tables may contain each element’s name, symbol, atomic number, atomic mass, and number of electrons in each energy level. • The electron configuration of an element can be determined based on the location of an element in the periodic table. 86 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > END OF 6.2 87 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > 88 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > 89 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > 90 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > 91 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. . 6.1 Organizing the Elements > 92 Copyright © Pearson Education, Inc., or its affiliates. All Rights Reserved. .