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The Animal Body Tour Levels of structure • Cells • Tissues: Cells combined in distinct ways into layers. Specialization (division of labor) • Organs: Made of more than one kind of tissue. Perform common function. • Organ systems: Several organs combine to perform major body function. Levels of structure • Example, circulatory system Levels of structure • 11 organ systems Tissue types (4) • 1) Epithelial tissue – Covers outer and inner ____________ of body – Cells tightly joined together (no blood vessels in intercellular spaces: materials must diffuse in and out) – Two major types: covering and lining, and glandular Tissue types • 1) Epithelial tissue types (covering and lining) – Simple epithelial (1 cell layer). Further subdivided based on cell shape • Squamous (flattened) • Cuboidal (cube shaped) • Columnar (rectangular) Tissue types • 1) Epithelial tissue types (covering and lining) – Stratified epithelial (multiple cell layers). Further subdivided by cell shape • Ex., squamous (flattened) – Pseudostratified epithelial (one cell layer but looks like 2 because __________ not all in same position) • Ex., pseudostratified columnar (rectangular) Tissue types • 1) Epithelial tissue – Glandular (secretes materials) epithelial tissue • Exocrine glands: connected to epithelium surface by duct (Ex., sweat glands, salivary glands) • Endocrine glands: not connected to epithelium surface (Ex., adrenal gland of kidney). Secretions called hormones, enter blood and stay within body Tissue types • Epithelial tissue functions: – Protection: invasion, dehydration, physical injury, etc. – Secretion of chemicals: ex., digestive tract • Note: usually with great regenerative ability – Ex., stomach lining replaced every ______ days Tissue types • 2) Connective tissue – Used to bind and support all other tissues – Other special functions too – Composed of cells and matrix (extracellular material) • Two types: – Connective tissue proper – Special connective tissues Tissue types • Connective tissue proper – 1) Loose connective tissue • Matrix often contains: collagen (strong protein fibers), elastin (elastic protein fibers) Tissue types • Connective tissue proper – 1) Loose connective tissue • Cells include: ______________ (cells that secrete matrix), mast cells (make histamine: blood vessel dilator), macrophages (phagocytic cells), adipose cells (contain a fat droplet) Adipose Loose connective Tissue types • Connective tissue proper – 2) Dense connective tissue • Collagen fibers tightly packed (very strong) • Ex, tendons and ligaments Tissue types • Special connective tissues: cartilage – Matrix: collagen fibers in parallel arrays and glycoproteins Tissue types • Special connective tissues: cartilage – Chondrocytes: living cartilage cells. Live in chambers (lacunae). Note lack of blood vessels: diffusion supplies cells with materials (slow process!) Tissue types • Special connective tissues: bone – Matrix hardened with calcium phosphate salts – No __________ occurs through bone matrix. Blood vessels present in central canals Tissue types • Special connective tissues: bone – Cells called osteocytes, located in chambers (lacunae) – Osteocytes connect with cellular processes through canalaliculi Tissue types • Special connective tissues: blood – Blood is connective tissue, with fluid matrix (plasma) – Erythrocytes (red blood cells): carry oxygen and carbon dioxide – Leukocytes (white blood cells): ___________ cells – Thrombocytes (platelets): fragments of bone marrow cells Tissue types • Connective tissue functions: – – – – Connect parts (tendons connect muscle to bone) Support body (skeleton) Protection (cranium around brain) Circulate materials (blood). Tissue types • 3) Muscle tissue – Most abundant _________ in humans – Basic structure: bundles of myofibrils, composed of protein filaments (actin and myosin). Tissue types • 3) Muscle tissue types: – Skeletal (striated) muscle: multinucleated, produce voluntary movements Tissue types • 3) Muscle tissue types: – Cardiac (also striated): single nucleus, have intercalated discs (heart muscle) Tissue types • 3) Muscle tissue types: – Smooth muscle: no striations. Usually not under voluntary control Tissue types • Functions: – Movement (of body, fluids within body, etc.) Tissue types • 4) Nerve tissue – – – – Transmits electrochemical impulses Neuron (name of cell type) Dendrite (process: brings impulse to cell body) Axon (process: carries impulse from cell body) Tissue types • 4) Nerve tissue – Neuroglia: support cells – Often associate with axons, form sheath (_________ sheath) – Note Nodes of Ranvier (gaps in sheath). Tissue types • 2 nerve networks: – Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): perceives environment and communicates to body – Central Nervous System (CNS): processes information and coordinates activities Tissue types • 4) Nerve tissue: Types of neurons – Sensory (receive information: send to CNS) – Motor (stimulate muscles/glands) – Association (integrate information and connect to other neurons) Tissue types • 4) Nerve tissue – Nerves: bundles of ___________ – Ganglion (plural: ganglia): collection of neuron cell bodies Tissue types • 4) Nerve tissue – Functions: Send electrical signals to convey information, make things happen in body, etc. Integumentary System Integumentary System • Human skin: largest organ of body (2 square yards, 16% of body weight) • Distribution: “Rule of _____s” Note: diagram %s are for only one side of body Integumentary System • Many functions in animals: – Protection. Forms boundary of individual, barrier to external dangers and valuable internal materials – Sensing. Can gather information about environment: temperature, pressure, light, damage to integument – Communication. Since visible to others, can send signals with skin color or structures (hairs, scales, feathers) – Regulate body temperature. Can be used to gain/lose energy. Integument structures (hairs, scales, feathers) can provide ____________ Integumentary System • Many functions in animals: – Excretion: Sweat contains water, urea (nitrogenous waste material), salts. These eliminated during sweating Integumentary System • Skin layers – Epidermis – Dermis Integumentary System • Human skin layers: Epidermis – Upper boundary: Stratum corneum. Dead cells that provide protective layer. Shed as skin scales or flakes Integumentary System • Human skin layers: Epidermis – You will shed about 40 lbs. of skin scales during your lifetime – Good news for dust mites (Phylum Arthropoda, Class Arachnida, Order Acari)! Integumentary System • Human skin layers: Epidermis – Lower boundary: Stratum germinativum (basal cells). Living cells doing rapid _________. Daughter cells fill with keratin (tough water resistant protein: also found in hair, fingernails, hooves, claws), flatten and die Integumentary System • Human skin layers: Epidermis – Contains melanocytes: cells that produce melanin and transfer it to other skin cells. Darken skin color in response to UV exposure (tanning) Integumentary System • Human skin layers: Epidermis – UV exposure increases skin cancer chances – Melanoma: ____________ that divides out of control – Recall ozone thinning problem Integumentary System • Human skin layers: Dermis • Contains connective tissue, blood vessels, nerve endings. Integumentary System • Human skin also contains: hairs – Follicle: invagination of skin surface containing hair – Shaft: body of hair (mostly protein: ____________) – Bulb: base from which hair grows by cell division (each cell divides every 1-3 days!) – Papilla: contains blood supply Integumentary System • Human skin also contains: hairs – Arrector pili muscle: smooth muscle. Can change angle of hair Integumentary System • Human skin also contains: exocrine glands – Sweat glands: empty onto skin surface at sweat pore. Integumentary System • Human skin also contains: exocrine glands – Sebaceous glands: associated with hair follicle, secrete oil to lubricate/protect skin and hair Integumentary System • Human skin also contains: sense organs – Free nerve endings: sense _____________ – Hair follicle receptors: can sense movement of hair Integumentary System • Human skin also contains: sense organs – Merkel cell, Meissner’s corpuscles, Pacinian corpuscles. Sense pressure/stretch of skin Integumentary System • Human skin also contains: sense organs – Temperature: End-bulb of Krause (cold), Organ of Ruffini (hot) Integumentary System • Below the skin: Subcutaneous __________ • Contains adipose tissue – Stores energy, cushioning (soles of feet, palms of hands), provides insulation Integumentary System • Nails: Special keratinized layer of cells produced by fold of skin (nail root) Fingernail magnified 1000 X Skin burns • First degree (epidermis), second degree (epidermis), third degree (dermis) Skeletal System Skeletal System • Contains mostly connective tissue – – – – Bone Cartilage Tendons (connect bone to muscle) Ligaments (connect one bone to another bone) Bone • Living tissue. Contains nerves, blood vessels, cells • Formed by cells called ___________, which secrete collagen matrix in which Ca and P salts later deposited. These cells then called osteocytes. • Usually forms by replacing cartilage in embryo and at ends of major bones as they grow (endochondral bones) • Some bones formed directly from dense connective tissue (intramembranous bones) • Structure Bone – Periosteum: connective tissue sheath • Structure Bone – Compact bone (along shafts of long bones) • hollow inner core with yellow marrow • Structure Bone – Compact bone • Bone laid down in layers called lamellae in an _______ or Haversian system • Structure Bone – Compact bone • Haversian systems: structural unit that surrounds internal marrow cavity or spongy bone. Haversian Canal contains blood vessels and nerves • Volkmann’s canals: connect adjacent Haversian canals • Structure Bone – Spongy bone • Mainly at outer ends of long bones • Cavities contain red marrow • All areas of bones start as spongy bone, some become compact bone as they develop • Structure Bone – Marrow (in bone spaces) • Red marrow: stores fat, makes _______ cells (red and white) by rapid mitotic divisions • Yellow marrow: stores fat only Bone • Long bones grow in length in areas toward ends at ____________ plates • Cartilage there grows, chondrocytes die, osteoblasts move in and secrete bone. Process stops by age 20. Bones • 206 bones in human body Bones • In lab: use rat skeleton (240 bones total). Need to know names of bones and groups shown in manual. DO BEFORE COMING TO LAB! Cartilage • Generally, firm but flexible connective tissue • Cells called chondrocytes • Contains collagen and elastin fibers in matrix • 4 types: Cartilage – 1) Hyaline cartilage. Flexible, translucent. High in ___________ fibers (tough and strong) – Ex, rings in trachea (windpipe). Seen in lab rat – Ex, found between bones in many joints (cushions bone). Knee joint (articular cartilage). Cartilage • 4 types – 2) Elastic cartilage. High in __________ fibers. Flexible. Ex, outer ear – 3) Fibrocartilage. High in collagen, not translucent. Very tough. Used to cushion some joints (vertebrae) – 4) Calcified cartilage. Has some calcium deposits, but not as much as bone. Ex, Chondrichthyes (cartilagenous fishes) Elastic cartilage Tendons • Connect bones to adjacent muscles. All major muscles attached to skeleton this way. • Ex, muscles that work fingers are in lower arm. Attach to fingers by tendons that you can see on the back of your hand Ligaments • Hold adjacent bones together. Can determine how bones move (ex, knee joint) • Tend to stretch in one direction Ligaments/Tendons • Similar, in that little to no ________ supply present • So, very slow to heal if damaged. Also, scar tissue that does form is not very strong • However, easily replaced by transplants (from cadavers or other living humans) Joints • Also called articulations. Where one bone meets another. • 3 types: • 1) Immovable joints. __________ tissue joints bones. Ex, sutures in skull Joints • Also called articulations. Where one bone meets another. • 2) Slightly movable joints. Bones bridged by cartilage. Ex, intervertebral discs in backbone. Allow some movement, cushion vertebrae. Joints • 3) Freely movable joints (synovial joints). – Bone tipped with layer of ____________ – End encased in synovial capsule: Fluid-filled membrane bag. Ex, finger as hinge-like joint (movement in one direction). Hip joint as ball and socket joint (rotating movement possible).